Electronic lovers

Books have always been a window into new worlds. The ability to access them without breaking the bank is more important than ever. E-libraries offer readers an affordable and flexible way to enjoy countless titles. Zlibrary is your chance to explore the world of books without paying. This means more people can dive into the joy of reading without worrying about high costs. But how exactly do e-libraries make reading accessible to everyone? Let’s break it down.

Easy Access and a Wide Selection

E-libraries remove the barriers that come with traditional books. Physical libraries require trips across town and can have limited copies. On the other hand, e-libraries are accessible from anywhere at any time. Readers can enjoy a wide variety of titles including rare and out-of-print works without waiting for availability. This kind of access helps readers save both time and money.

Beyond easy access, e-libraries also provide a wide selection of genres. From classic literature to modern bestsellers every reader can find something suited to their taste. Traditional bookstores often have high prices for popular books while e-libraries offer the same material at much lower costs. The options are endless and the best part is you don’t need to worry about shipping or storage.

The key factor that makes e-libraries an affordable option is the pricing model. Some e-libraries offer free access while others charge minimal subscription fees. Compared to buying physical books or even e-books individually, e-libraries allow users to read a vast number of titles for a fraction of the cost.

Not only do these platforms save you money but they also remove the hassle of managing your personal collection. There’s no need to buy new shelves or find storage space for your favorite books. Everything is stored digitally in a single place.

E-libraries contribute to affordability in another way too. By reducing the need for printed materials they help save resources. Less paper fewer deliveries and reduced printing costs all contribute to lower prices. E-libraries are an environmentally friendly option that passes on the savings to readers.

In the long run the value of e-libraries only grows. As digital libraries expand their collections readers gain more access without the need to keep buying. It’s an investment that pays off over time. You get the latest releases as well as timeless classics all under one virtual roof. This adds long-term value to your reading experience while keeping expenses low.

E-libraries are not just for leisure reading. They offer rich educational resources for readers of all ages. Students, researchers and lifelong learners can access academic texts, textbooks and research papers at minimal cost. Traditional textbooks and reference materials are often expensive but e-libraries provide these resources for little to no cost making education more affordable.

Parents can also use e-libraries to introduce children to reading. Interactive and illustrated e-books offer a fun way to spark a love for literature in young minds. By using digital platforms kids can explore a range of genres and topics without the cost of buying new books.

The post What Makes E-Libraries an Affordable Option for Readers? appeared first on Electronics Lovers ~ Technology We Love.

Contact resistance is the resistance that appears between conductors in contact with each other. Typically, contact resistance is required to be below 10-20 mΩ, though some switches may require it to be under 0.1-0.5 Ω. Variations in contact resistance can significantly affect sensitive circuits. Many great distributors like Heisener offer a wide range of components of Contact resistance to cater diverse application needs.

Contact resistance consists of several components:

Concentration Resistance: This is the resistance observed due to current constriction or concentration at the actual contact surface.

Film Layer Resistance: This arises from film layers and contaminants on the contact surfaces. It can include both solid film layers and loose impurity contamination.

Conductor Resistance: When measuring contact resistance, it also includes the resistance of the conductors and leads connected to the contact points. This conductor resistance depends on the conductivity of the metal and is characterized by its temperature coefficient.

In practical measurements of contact resistance, a milliohm meter designed based on the Kelvin bridge four-terminal method is commonly used. This device utilizes specialized clamps that attach to both ends of the contact points being tested. The total measured contact resistance, R, consists of three components:

R=Rc+Rf+Rp

where RC is the concentration resistance, Rf is the film layer resistance, and Rp is the conductor resistance. The purpose of contact resistance testing is to determine the resistance generated when current flows through the electrical contact points on the contact surfaces.

The working principle of contact resistance involves the complexity of the actual contact surface. Even with a smooth gold-plated layer, microscopic examination reveals surface protrusions of 5-10 micrometers. The actual contact area is often much smaller than the theoretical contact area because contact occurs at scattered points rather than across the entire surface. These contact points are formed where the interface film has been disrupted by contact pressure or heat, and they constitute about 5-10% of the actual contact area.

Furthermore, the actual contact surface includes portions where contact occurs through a contamination film at the interface. Metal surfaces have a tendency to form oxide films, and even clean metal surfaces quickly develop a few micrometers of oxide film once exposed to air. Even stable metals like gold form organic gas adsorption films on their surfaces. Additionally, dust and pollutants in the air contribute to the formation of a deposition film on the contact surface. Thus, from a microscopic perspective, any contact surface inevitably becomes a contaminated surface, which significantly impacts the actual contact resistance.

Factors affecting contact resistance include contact material, normal pressure, surface condition, operating voltage, and current.

Contact Material: Different materials have different standards for contact resistance. For instance, the resistance of copper alloy contacts should be less than 5 milliohms, while iron alloy contacts should be less than 15 milliohms.

Normal Pressure: This refers to the force perpendicular to the contact surface. Increasing normal pressure increases the number and area of contact points, thereby reducing contact resistance. Normal pressure is influenced by the geometry and material properties of the contact components.

Surface Condition: Contaminants and deposits on the contact surface can increase resistance. Common contaminants include dust, oil, and chemical adsorption films, all of which can reduce the contact area and increase resistance.

Operating Voltage: High voltage can break down surface films, lowering contact resistance, but it can also cause nonlinear resistance changes, which may lead to errors in testing and operation.

Current: Excessive current generates Joule heat, which can cause metal to soften or melt, thereby reducing contact resistance.

Measuring contact resistance accurately is crucial for ensuring the reliability of electrical connections. Here are common methods used for measuring contact resistance:

Four-Wire (Kelvin) Method

This method uses four separate wires to measure resistance, eliminating the impact of lead and contact resistances. Two wires supply the current, while the other two measure the voltage drop across the contact.

Procedure:

1. Connect the current-carrying wires to the contact points.
2. Attach the voltage-sensing wires to the same contact points but at different locations.
3. Measure the voltage drop and current. The contact resistance R is calculated using Ohm’s law: 𝑅=𝑉/𝐼

Two-Wire Method

This simpler method uses two wires, one for current and one for voltage measurement. It is less accurate due to the inclusion of lead and contact resistances in the measurement.

Procedure:

1. Connect one wire to supply current and the other to measure the voltage drop.
2. Calculate the resistance with 𝑅=𝑉/𝐼

Micro-Ohmmeter Method

A micro-ohmmeter is a specialized instrument designed to measure very low resistances with high precision.

Procedure:

1. Connect the micro-ohmmeter to the contact points.
2. The device applies a known current and measures the voltage drop to calculate the resistance.

Bridge Method

This method uses a bridge circuit (e.g., Wheatstone bridge) to measure resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit.

Procedure:

1. Set up the bridge circuit with contact resistance in one leg and known resistors in the other legs.
2. Adjust the known resistors until the bridge is balanced.
3. Calculate the unknown resistance based on the known resistors and the bridge configuration.

Contact Resistance Testers

These are dedicated devices specifically designed to measure contact resistance quickly and accurately.

Procedure:

1. Connect the tester to the contact points.
2. The tester applies a current and measures the resulting voltage drop to calculate resistance.

Contact resistance refers to the electrical resistance measured at the point where conductors make contact. It is influenced by various factors including the materials used, contact pressure, surface conditions, voltage, and current. In practice, contact resistance is usually much higher than the theoretical value due to the small area of contact points, surface contamination, and the presence of oxidation films. When measuring contact resistance, it is important to consider these influencing factors to ensure accurate assessment of contact performance and to avoid electrical faults or performance degradation caused by poor contact.

The post What Is Contact Resistance? appeared first on Electronics Lovers ~ Technology We Love.

Button batteries, also known as coin cells, are small power sources that are often found in numerous electronic devices which require a compact, efficient source of power. They’re named “button” batteries because of their small, round, and flat shape that resembles a button.

These batteries come in different types, the two main ones being alkaline and silver oxide:

1. Alkaline button batteries: Wide range of sizes, relatively low initial cost but have a shorter life compared to other types. They also discharge more quickly when stored.

2. Silver oxide batteries: Slightly more expensive, but they offer a longer lifespan and better stability for devices that need a continuous, stable energy supply.

Button batteries have different models, including but not limited to: LR44, SR44, CR3032, LR1130, SR1130 etc. These represent different chemistries, voltage levels and sizes.

Button batteries are incredibly widespread in their use due to their small size and efficiency. They’re often found in a diverse range of products both in consumer electronics and in industrial applications. Here are some typical applications:

1. Watches: One of the most common uses of button batteries is in analog watches, which require a compact, long-lasting, and reliable source of power.

2. Hearing Aids: In hearing aids, button batteries are widely utilized due to their small size, which fits the compact design of the devices.

3. Electronic Car Keys: The transmitters inside electronic car keys are often powered by button batteries.

4. Calculators: Smaller calculators often use button batteries because they require little power and operate for a long time on a single battery.

5. Portable Medical Devices: Devices like glucose meters, digital thermometers, and certain types of heart-rate monitors may use button batteries.

6. Games and Toys: Many handheld electronic games and small toys use button batteries.

7. Computer Motherboards: Button batteries are used in computers to power the BIOS, which maintains system time and settings when the computer is powered off.

8. Small LED Lights: Some small LED lights, such as those used in wearable tech, keychain lights, or seasonal decorations, are powered by button batteries.

9. Remote Controls: Devices like remote controls for alarm systems or garages may use button batteries.

Caution is advised in households with small children and pets as they can be a choking hazard, and can cause health complications if swallowed because these batteries contain heavy metals like mercury, lead, zinc and others which are toxic in nature.

Button batteries provide a valuable service for powering various small electronic devices, but it’s crucial to take a few precautions when handling and using them:

1. Choking Hazard: Due to their small size, button batteries pose significant dangers as choking hazards, especially for young children and pets. Always make sure to use and store these batteries in a place that’s out of reach of small children and pets.

2. Risk from Ingestion or Insertion: Beyond being choking hazards, if button batteries (particularly lithium button batteries) are ingested or inserted into the body (such as in the ears or nose), they can cause serious injuries. Swallowed button batteries can cause chemical burns in as little as two hours, and even potentially be life-threatening. Seek immediate medical attention if you believe a battery has been swallowed or inserted into the body.

3. Proper Installation: Always make sure to install the button batteries the correct way into your devices. Incorrect installation can potentially lead to short circuits, leakage or even rupture.

4. Proper Replacement: Replace button batteries with the same or equivalent type to avoid any damage to the device. Mixing different types can lead to leakage or rupture.

5. Avoid extreme temperatures: Do not expose the batteries to extreme heat or cold. These conditions can pote

The small size of button batteries poses a risk to children and pets who might inadvertently consume them, thereby causing severe, even potentially fatal, health complications due to chemical leaks or burns. Therefore, it’s essential to keep all batteries, new or used, securely stored and out of reach.

Immediate medical intervention is crucial if ingestion is suspected. Avoid inducing vomiting or giving food or drink unless instructed by a healthcare professional, as it might worsen the condition. Follow medical advice closely and provide any information about the ingested battery’s type and size, if known.

The post Widely Used Button Batteries and Usage Precautions appeared first on Electronics Lovers ~ Technology We Love.

The world of electronic manufacturing changes regularly, and as a result – fabricators must select one of two approaches in fabricating electronic components which are the Surface Mount Technology and Through-Hole Assembly methods. Each method brings its own set of advantages and drawbacks wherein you will have the final say on which manufacturing approach is geared to your standards and budget.

In this article, we’ll be taking a look at the nuances between SMT assembly and Through-Hole Assembly and the criteria that you’ll use as a basis to make the right decision on which manufacturing approach you’ll utilize for your project.

To begin our discussion, let’s learn what Surface Mount Technology is. SMT assembly is a process wherein electronic components are mounted directly onto a PCB’s surface through assembly machinery which an operator programs. As a result, this facilitates a fast-paced production which allows the creation of many surface-mounted circuit boards in a short timeframe.

• Faster production setup – Compared to Through-Hole assembly, SMT assembly’s production setup facilitates fast-paced mass-production of printed circuit boards. This trait is what makes it favorable for factories or facilities that are required to mass-produce PCBs for different clients from different niches.

• High component density, small board size – Printed circuit boards that are made through this method of assembly are far smaller than their through-hole-made counterparts. That’s because the circuit board’s surfaces contain a very high density of electronic components which maximizes the use of the allotted space of the printed circuit boards

• Flexible application – Compared to through-hole boards, SMT-assembled PCBs are quite ubiquitous as they are utilized in most applications – usually in domestic devices or consumer goods. These items where SMT-assembled circuit boards are integrated into can range from kitchen appliances to your phone.

• Can facilitate more connections – Aside from their density, SMT-assembled boards are also known for their capability to accommodate more connections as components can be placed on both the front and back sides of the printed circuit board. As a result, there are more connections possible for every printed circuit board that works as intended.

• Requires specialized tools and expert-leveled operators – SMT-assembled PCBs will require more care in the process of manufacturing them due to the compact sizes of the printed circuits requiring more attention to ensure that the end product isn’t defective. To ensure that outcome, SMT assembly factories will be required to invest in specialized tools for manufacturing, assembly, and repairing, as well as hiring expert operators who will oversee the manufacturing process.

Before we delve into selecting the ideal assembly method for your project, let’s understand what

is through-hole assembly first. The through-hole method of assembling printed circuit boards involves drilling holes into the board’s surface. Once the holes are set, leads are inserted into the drilled holes before the components are installed and soldered on them. This method of assembly is significantly slower due to the added steps in installing the components but still has a key niche to fill in the world of electronics.

The Key Characteristics of Through-Hole Assembly

• Provides clients with specialized circuit boards – Despite the limited range of designs that through-hole assembled circuits have compared to SMT assembly-made circuit boards, it fares well in electronic setups that require a PCB that can function in specific conditions – say for example, a through-hole assembled PCB that is meant for use in electrical circuit setups that has a high heat dissipation for use in an industrial configuration.

• Reliable and resilient – Compared to the mass-produced SMT-assembled boards, through-hole assembled PCBs are more reliable due to the components being embedded onto the surface of the board through drilled holes and leads which also keeps the component intact. As a result, through-hole assembled boards have a very robust connection making the PCBs ideal for intense work environments ranging from military and aerospace applications to industrial use. On top of that, through-hole assembled boards sport better durability due to their designs having a high heat and stress tolerance.

• Easier repair time and adjustability – Unlike their SMT assembly counterparts, the PCBs made by through-hole assembly methods are easier to repair or operate manually. That’s because the key components embedded on the PCB are easier to replace or modify their positioning when necessary. In addition to what’s stated, the parts are easy to discern and identify so if a component on the PCB is defective; all it takes is to remove the defective part and replace it with a functioning version.

Now that we’ve covered the two methods of assembling circuit boards; let’s cover next the factors that you’ll need to consider in selecting which method best suits your project. Listed below are the factors that could play into choosing whether you will settle for SMT assembly or through-hole assembly for your future PCBs:

The first factor that comes into play in making the right choice for your PCB project is its cost. Are you willing to invest a lot of money for a specialized printed circuit board or will you settle for a PCB that can be applied in a myriad of situations? You should also determine how much is the total costs of the materials and components that will be used in your project.

These factors related to the project’s costs should help whether you should opt for SMT assembly or through-hole assembly.

The next factor that comes into play whether you should choose SMT assembly or through-hole assembly is whether you value the quantity or the performance of the printed circuit board. If your goal is to produce as many printed circuit boards to meet the needs of many devices, then you could opt for SMT assembly.

However, if you value performance more – then you can consider aiming for through-hole assembly instead. Keep in mind though, that SMT-assembled circuit boards do still hold a solid performance which we’ll explore that nuance in the next criteria.

If you’ve factored in the performance of the PCBs for your project, then another layer of nuance comes into play – which is choosing between flexibility or specialization. If your project aims to turn the PCBs into a size-fits-many solution for different devices then you could opt for SMT assembly. As stated earlier, the best example of a flexible-use printed circuit board are domestic and everyday electronic items that we use such as smartphones, televisions, and the like.

However, if your electronic configuration calls for a specific circuit board; say for example – if your work environment favors a resilient PCB that can withstand intense amounts of workloads, mechanical stress, and electrical flow – you would want to settle with through-hole assembly instead of SMT-assembled boards as they could deteriorate fast in these types of working conditions. Notable examples of these intense work conditions where through-hole PCBs see use are automotive factories and industrial plants; aside from military and aerospace applications.

The last hurdle you’ll need to factor into your project whether you should settle for SMT assembly or through assembly is the intended application of your project. Is your project intended for use in consumer products or everyday items? If that’s the case then SMT assembled PCBs are your best bet.

However, if your project’s intended use is for specific niches or uses – for example; printed circuit boards for use in high-powered lighting, or to power the avionics inside a plane then utilizing through-hole assembled circuit boards could be the way to go.

To sum up what we’ve covered – there are two ways a printed circuit board is manufactured; namely through SMT assembly or through-hole assembly. To ensure that your project will work as intended for its target niche, you should consider the costs, quantity, or performance, its role whether it is flexible or specialized, and its intended niche.

Putting together the manufacturing methods and the factors that you need to consider will ensure that your electrical project is brought to reality.

The post SMT vs. Through-Hole Assembly: Making the Right Choice for Your Project appeared first on Electronics Lovers ~ Technology We Love.