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Introduction

Among all power factor correction (PFC) topologies, totem-pole bridgeless PFC provides the best efficiency; therefore, it is widely used in servers and data centers. However, closing the current control loop of a continuous conduction mode (CCM) totem-pole bridgeless PFC is not as straightforward as it is for a traditional PFC. A traditional PFC operating in CCM employs an average current-mode controller [1], as shown in Figure 1, where VREF is the voltage-loop reference, VOUT is the sensed PFC output voltage, Gv is the voltage loop, VIN is the sensed PFC input voltage, IREF is the current-loop reference, IIN is the sensed PFC inductor current, GI is current loop, and d is the duty ratio of pulse-width modulation (PWM). Since the bridge rectifier is used in a traditional PFC, all these values are positive, and current feedback signal IIN is the rectified input current signal.

Figure 1 Average current-mode controller for PFC where all the parameters listed have positive values and IIN is the rectified input current signal. Source: Texas Instruments

New feedback signal

Since the inductor current in the totem-pole bridgeless PFC is bidirectional, the current-sense method used in traditional PFC will not work. Instead, you will need a bidirectional current sensor such as Hall-effect sensor to sense the bidirectional inductor current and provide a feedback signal to the control loop.

The output of the Hall-effect sensor will not 100% match the sensed current, though. For example, if the sensed current is a sine wave, then the output of the Hall-effect sensor is a sine wave with a DC offset, as shown in Figure 2. Thus, you can’t use it as the feedback signal in the current-mode controller shown in Figure 1, and you will have to modify the controller to accommodate this new feedback signal. In this power tip, I’ll describe three ways to close the current control loop with this new feedback signal.

Figure 2 Totem-pole bridgeless PFC and its current-sense signal showing that the Hall-effect sensor output will not 100% match the sensed current. Source: Texas Instruments

Method 1: Controllers without a negative loop reference

Some digital controllers, such as the UCD3138 from Texas Instruments (TI), use a hardware state machine to implement the control loop; therefore, all of the input signals to the state machine must be greater or equal to zero. In such cases, follow these steps to close the current control loop:

1. Sense the AC line and AC neutral voltage through two analog-to-digital-converters (ADCs) separately.
2. Use firmware to rectify the sensed VAC signal, as shown in Equation 1 and Figure 3.

Figure 3 Using the firmware shown in Equation 1 to rectify the sensed input voltage VAC. Source: Texas Instruments

3. Calculate the sinusoidal reference, VSINE, using the same method as when calculating IREF in traditional PFC, as shown in Equation 2 and Figure 4.

Figure 4 Calculating a sinusoidal reference (VSINE) using the same method as when calculating IREF in traditional PFC. Source: Texas Instruments

4. Use a Hall-effect sensor output as the current feedback signal IIN directly (Equation 3).

5. During the positive AC cycle, if you compare the shape of VSINE and the Hall-effect sensor output, they have the same shape. The only difference is the DC offset. Use Equation 4 to calculate the current-loop reference, IREF.

6. The control loop has standard negative feedback control. Use Equation 5 to calculate the error that goes to the control loop:

7. During the negative AC cycle, if you compare the shape of VSINE and the Hall-effect sensor output, the difference is not only the DC offset; their shapes are opposite as well. Use Equation 6 to calculate the current-loop reference, IREF.

8. During the negative AC cycle, the higher the inductor current, the lower the value of the Hall-effect sensor output. The control loop needs to change from negative feedback to positive feedback. Use Equation 7 to calculate the error going to the control loop.

Method 2: A pure firmware-based controller

For a pure firmware-based digital controller such as the TI C2000 microcontroller, the control loop is implemented with firmware, which means that the internal calculation parameters can be positive or negative. In such cases, follow these steps to close the current control loop:

1. Sense the AC line and AC neutral voltage through two ADCs. Then use the line voltage to subtract the neutral voltage to obtain VIN, as shown in Equation 8 and Figure 5.

Figure 5 Calculating VIN after using the line voltage to subtract the neutral voltage. Source: Texas Instruments

2. Calculate the sinusoidal current-loop reference, IREF, using the same method as in traditional PFC, as shown in Equation 9 and Figure 6.

Figure 6 Calculating IREF using the same method as the traditional PFC. Source: Texas Instruments

3. If you compare the shape of IREF and the Hall-effect sensor output, they have the same shape; the only difference is the DC offset. Use Equation 10 to calculate the input current feedback signal, IIN. Figure 7 shows the waveform.

Figure 7 The waveform of the Hall sensor output and DC offset to calculate IIN. Source: Texas Instruments

4. During the positive AC cycle, the control loop has standard negative feedback control. Use Equation 11 to calculate the error going to the control loop:

5. During the negative AC cycle, the higher the inductor current, the lower the value of the Hall-effect sensor output; thus, the control loop needs to change from negative feedback to positive feedback. Use Equation 12 to calculate the error going to the control loop.

Method 3: Duty-ratio feedforward control

Total harmonic distortion (THD) requirements are becoming stricter, especially in server and data-center applications. Reducing THD necessitates pushing the control-loop bandwidth higher and higher. High bandwidths reduce phase margins, resulting in loop instability. The limited PFC switching frequency also prevents bandwidths from going very high. To solve this problem, you can add a precalculated duty cycle to the control loop to generate PWM; this is called duty-ratio feedforward control (dFF) [2], [3].

For a boost topology operating in CCM mode, Equation 13 calculates dFF as:

This duty-ratio pattern effectively produces a voltage across the switch whose average over a switching cycle is equal to the rectified input voltage. A regular current-loop compensator changes the duty ratio around this calculated duty-ratio pattern. Since the impedance of the boost inductor at the line frequency is very low, a small variation in the duty ratio produces enough voltage across the inductor to generate the required sinusoidal current waveform so that the current-loop compensator does not need to have a high bandwidth.

Figure 8 depicts the resulting control scheme. Adding the calculated dFF to the traditional average current-mode control output, dI, results in the final duty ratio, d, used to generate the PWM waveform to control PFC.

Figure 8 Duty-ratio feedforward control for PFC where adding the calculated dFF to the traditional average current-mode control output, dI, results in the final duty ratio, d, used to generate the PWM waveform to control PFC. Source: Texas Instruments

To leverage the advantages of dFF in a totem-pole bridgeless PFC, follow these steps to close the current loop:

1. Follow steps 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 from Method 2.
2. Calculate dFF, as shown in Equation 14. Since VIN is a sine wave and its value is negative in a negative AC cycle, use its absolute value for the calculation.

3. Use Equation 15 to add dFF to the GI output, dI, and obtain the final d.

You can also use dFF control for a hardware state machine-based controller; for details, see reference [2].

Closing the current loop

Closing the current loop of a totem-pole bridgeless PFC is not as straightforward as in a traditional PFC; it may also vary from controller to controller. This power tip can help you eliminate the confusion around control-loop implementations in a totem-pole bridgeless PFC, and choose the appropriate method for your design.

Bosheng Sun is a systems engineer in Texas Instruments, focusing on developing digital controlled high-performance AC/DC solutions for server and industry applications. Bosheng received an M.S. degree from Cleveland State University in 2003, and a B.S degree from Tsinghua University in Beijing in 1995, both in Electrical Engineering. He holds 5 US patents.

Related Content

• Power Tips #108: Current sensing considerations in a bridgeless totem pole PFC
• A comparison of interleaved boost and totem-pole PFC topologies
• Power Tips #116: How to reduce THD of a PFC
• Power Tips #132: A low-cost and high-accuracy e-meter solution

References

1. Dixon, Lloyd. “High Power Factor Preregulator for Off-Line Power Supplies.” Texas Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar SEM600, literature No. SLUP087, 1988.
2. Sun, Bosheng. “Duty Ratio Feedforward Control of Digitally Controlled PFC.” Power Systems Design, Dec. 3, 2014.
3. Van de Sype, David M., Koen De Gussemé, Alex P.M. Van den Bossche, and Jan A. Melkebeek. “Duty-Ratio Feedforward for Digitally Controlled Boost PFC Converters.” Published in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 52, no. 1 (February 2005): pp. 108-115.

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For fiscal first-quarter 2025 (ended 27 December 2024), Skyworks Solutions Inc of Irvine, CA, USA (which manufactures analog and mixed-signal semiconductors) has reported revenue of $1068m, down 11% on $1201.5m a year ago but up 4% on $1025m last quarter and slightly above the midpoint of the $1050–1080m guidance range. This was despite a muted demand environment and ongoing inventory digestion across selective end markets...

India’s healthcare landscape is rapidly evolving with the integration of advanced robotics into medical procedures. Although still in its nascent stage compared to global markets, the country is witnessing a surge of innovation driven by both established technology conglomerates and agile startups. These companies are developing a range of medical robots—from surgical assistants and rehabilitation devices to automated hospital systems—designed to enhance precision, improve patient outcomes, and reduce overall procedural risks.

Below are the top 10 medical robot manufacturers in India that are paving the way for a smarter, more efficient healthcare ecosystem:

1. Robosoft Systems
   Based in Bangalore, Robosoft Systems has emerged as a leader in the robotics domain with diversified applications in healthcare. Their portfolio includes robotic platforms for surgical assistance and post-operative rehabilitation. Utilizing advanced sensor integration, precision actuation, and real-time feedback loops, their systems assist surgeons in executing minimally invasive procedures, thereby reducing recovery times and minimizing patient trauma.
2. Tata Elxsi
   A stalwart in design and technology innovation, Tata Elxsi has leveraged its expertise in embedded systems and AI to develop cutting-edge robotics solutions for the medical field. Their research and development initiatives focus on medical imaging and robotic control systems, enabling enhanced precision in surgical procedures. The company’s solutions incorporate robust safety protocols and user-friendly interfaces, making them ideal for integration in modern operating theaters.
3. SurgiBotix Innovations
   SurgiBotix Innovations is a dynamic startup committed to the development of robotic systems for minimally invasive surgeries. Their surgical robots are designed with teleoperation and semi-autonomous functionalities, allowing for remote surgical assistance and precise manipulation of instruments. By incorporating machine learning algorithms, these robots can adapt to complex surgical environments, ensuring high accuracy and reducing the incidence of human error.
4. MedTech Robotics Pvt Ltd
   Focusing on the intersection of robotics and surgical technology, MedTech Robotics Pvt Ltd designs robotic arms specifically for delicate surgical procedures. Their systems prioritize precision and stability, which are crucial in procedures that demand high accuracy, such as neurosurgery and microsurgery. Continuous improvements in real-time motion control and force feedback mechanisms are at the core of their design philosophy.
5. Skanray Technologies
   Traditionally recognized as a reliable medical device manufacturer, Skanray Technologies is expanding its horizon by venturing into the realm of medical robotics. Their new initiatives target the development of robotic platforms that assist surgeons during complex operations, integrating diagnostic imaging with robotic precision. This fusion of technologies is expected to enhance intraoperative decision-making and lead to better clinical outcomes.
6. IntelliMed Robotics
   IntelliMed Robotics is dedicated to developing robotic solutions that focus on patient rehabilitation and monitoring. Their innovative systems incorporate AI-driven analytics and sensor networks to track patient progress in real-time. These systems are particularly effective in rehabilitation centers, where robotic-assisted physiotherapy can be customized to meet individual patient needs, accelerating recovery while ensuring patient safety.
7. BioMech Robotics
   Specializing in exoskeletons and assistive devices, BioMech Robotics addresses the challenges of patient mobility and long-term care. Their products, which include robotic exoskeletons and wearable assistive devices, are designed to help patients with mobility impairments regain independence. By integrating ergonomic design with advanced control systems, BioMech’s solutions support both rehabilitation and eldercare, providing a significant boost to quality of life.
8. InnoMed Automation
   InnoMed Automation is making strides in automating routine hospital operations. Their robotic systems are implemented in various settings—from automated pharmacy dispensaries to laboratory sample handling units. These systems are engineered to reduce human error, streamline processes, and free up medical professionals to focus on patient-centric tasks. The adoption of InnoMed’s solutions is poised to transform operational efficiency in hospitals and diagnostic centers.
9. NextGen Surgical Robotics
   NextGen Surgical Robotics is at the forefront of integrating artificial intelligence with surgical robotics. Their innovative approach employs machine learning to enhance the adaptability and responsiveness of robotic systems during surgery. By continuously learning from surgical data, these robots refine their operational accuracy, ensuring that they are well-equipped to handle the dynamic challenges of complex procedures.
10. Artemis Medical Robotics
    Artemis Medical Robotics combines advanced imaging technologies with robotic precision to develop comprehensive systems for both diagnostic and surgical applications. Their platforms enable real-time imaging integration, providing surgeons with enhanced visualization during operations. This seamless integration of diagnostics and robotics not only improves surgical outcomes but also reduces the duration and invasiveness of procedures.

In conclusion, the landscape of medical robotics in India is rapidly evolving, driven by a convergence of advanced technology, innovative startups, and established industry players. These top 10 manufacturers are at the vanguard of this transformation, leveraging state-of-the-art engineering, AI, and real-time control systems to deliver solutions that are set to redefine patient care and surgical precision in the country. As these technologies mature, we can expect further enhancements in clinical outcomes, operational efficiency, and the overall quality of healthcare delivery in India.

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Silicon carbide wafer manufacturing technology firm TekSiC AB of Linköping, Sweden has added to its Xforge platform with the Xforge PVT, a compact high-temperature induction heating furnace for crystal growth using physical vapor transport in the semiconductor industry and research institutes. With its design, the Xforge PVT offers versatile configurations, ensuring what is claimed to be peak performance across diverse specialized applications...

India’s drone industry is soaring to new heights, fueled by rapid technological advancements and a strong push for indigenous manufacturing. With applications spanning defense, agriculture, logistics, and infrastructure, drones have become a crucial part of India’s modernization efforts. A growing ecosystem of manufacturers is driving innovation, producing high-quality drone components that cater to both domestic and global markets. From flight controllers and propulsion systems to AI-powered navigation and surveillance solutions, these companies are shaping the future of unmanned aerial systems. Here’s a look at the top 10 drone parts manufacturers in India and their impact on this evolving sector.

1. ideaForge Technology Pvt. Ltd.

Established as a pioneer in the Indian drone sector, ideaForge specializes in developing unmanned aerial systems (UAS) tailored for defense, surveillance, and industrial applications. Their drones are renowned for robustness and high performance, capable of operating in challenging environments to provide real-time situational awareness. Key features include extended endurance, substantial payload capacity, and stable flight performance. These attributes have made ideaForge a preferred choice for defense and security agencies engaged in border surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence operations.

2. Asteria Aerospace

Asteria Aerospace offers comprehensive drone-based solutions for both government and enterprise sectors. With in-house capabilities spanning hardware design, software development, and manufacturing, Asteria delivers end-to-end services. Their product lineup includes drones like the A200, A200-XT, A410-XT, and AT-15, alongside the SkyDeck cloud platform for drone operations analysis. These solutions cater to industries such as defense, homeland security, oil and gas, mining, and agriculture, providing critical services like infrastructure inspection and aerial surveillance.

3. Garuda Aerospace

Positioned as a Drone-as-a-Service (DaaS) provider, Garuda Aerospace delivers innovative drone solutions across sectors including agriculture, surveillance, and industrial applications. Their drones are designed for tasks such as pesticide spraying, crop monitoring, and infrastructure inspection. Garuda Aerospace emphasizes indigenous manufacturing, aligning with the “Make in India” initiative to reduce reliance on imported components and promote self-sufficiency in drone technology.

4. Paras Defence and Space Technologies

Paras Defence and Space Technologies is a prominent player in the defense and space sectors, extending its expertise to drone technology. The company focuses on developing and manufacturing drone components and subsystems, including electro-optic systems, stabilizers, and gimbals. Their contributions are integral to enhancing the capabilities of various drone platforms used in defense and industrial applications.

5. Zen Technologies

Specializing in defense training solutions, Zen Technologies has diversified into the drone industry by offering unmanned systems and associated components. Their product range includes target drones and surveillance UAVs designed to meet the rigorous standards of defense applications. Zen Technologies’ focus on research and development ensures the integration of advanced features and compliance with military specifications.

6. Dhaksha Unmanned Systems

Dhaksha Unmanned Systems is dedicated to providing unmanned aerial solutions for homeland security and commercial markets. Their expertise lies in developing UAS technology that addresses real-time demands, offering products suitable for surveillance, reconnaissance, and industrial applications. The company’s focus on innovation and adaptability makes it a significant contributor to India’s drone ecosystem.

7. TechEagle

TechEagle is a leading innovator in on-demand drone delivery solutions, designing drones optimized for sectors such as maritime, defense, e-commerce, and healthcare. Their drones are engineered to perform in diverse environments, facilitating tasks like parcel delivery, medical supply transport, and surveillance operations. TechEagle’s commitment to advancing drone technology contributes to the efficiency and reach of logistics and delivery services in India.

8. Marut Drones

Focusing on agricultural applications, Marut Drones develops drones equipped for tasks such as pesticide spraying, crop health monitoring, and afforestation efforts. Their solutions aim to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability by providing precise and efficient tools for farmers. Marut Drones’ technology supports large-scale farming operations and environmental conservation projects.

9. Skylark Drones

Skylark Drones offers drone-based solutions across various industries, including solar energy, infrastructure, and agriculture. Their services encompass aerial surveys, mapping, and inspection, providing clients with accurate data and insights for informed decision-making. Skylark’s technology aids in optimizing operations, reducing costs, and improving safety standards across sectors.

10. Karkhana.io

Karkhana.io is a B2B on-demand manufacturing platform with capabilities to produce custom drone parts and components. Utilizing materials such as carbon fiber, polymers, and metals, Karkhana.io supports startups, SMEs, and large enterprises from prototyping to production stages. Their services ensure that drone manufacturers have access to high-quality, tailor-made components essential for building advanced UAVs.

These companies exemplify the dynamic and rapidly evolving landscape of drone technology in India. Their contributions span from complete drone systems to specialized components, collectively bolstering the country’s capabilities in various sectors such as defense, agriculture, surveillance, and logistics. As the industry continues to grow, these manufacturers are poised to play pivotal roles in shaping the future of unmanned aerial technology in India.

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Teledyne e2v, a Teledyne Technologies company and global innovator of imaging solutions, introduces Lince5M NIR, a state-of-the-art high–speed CMOS image sensor. Leveraging Teledyne e2v’s advanced imaging technologies, this new sensor delivers enhanced performance in both visible and near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths, making it ideal for a wide range of commercial, industrial, and medical applications.

The Lince5M NIR is a monochrome image sensor with a resolution of 5.2 megapixels (2,560 x 2,048). Building on the established Lince5M, this new sensor combines high–speed capabilities and high Quantum Efficiency (35% at 850 nm) in both visible and near-infrared wavelengths. It achieves a high frame rate of 250 fps (full resolution, 12-bit ADC), using the 24 LVDS output channels. Lince5M NIR delivers superior performance for demanding applications that require sharp images at very high-speeds and in low-light conditions, such as motion capture, sport analytics, industrial metrology, retinal imaging, and intelligent traffic monitoring. Designed around Teledyne e2v’s 5 µm global shutter pixel, this image sensor offers a dynamic range of 55 dB in standard mode and over 100 dB in High Dynamic Range mode, making it perfect for observing high-contrast scenes.

Lince5M NIR is housed in a robust 28 x 28 mm 181 PGA (Pin-Grid Array) ceramic package and features a 1-inch optical format compatible with a broad range of C-mount lenses, for cost-effective camera integration. With an operating temperature range from -40°C up to 125°C, the Lince5M NIR is suitable for both indoor and outdoor applications.

François Trolez, Marketing Manager at Teledyne e2v, said, “We are very pleased to release Lince5M NIR, specifically designed to offer unique features for high–speed imaging beyond the visible spectrum, with high performance in the near-infrared region. With its robust design, Lince5M NIR meets the demands of both industrial and commercial applications. Camera manufacturers currently using our Lince5M will find it easy to switch to Lince5M NIR, as both products share the same mechanical and electrical interfaces. This new product will enhance our ability to address new markets and applications.”

Lince5M NIR will be showcased during Vision China, Shanghai, China from 26-28 March 2025. Visit us on Teledyne stand 5413 in Hall W5 or contact us online for more information.

Documentation, samples, and kits for evaluation or development are available upon request.

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Unified solution allows Microchip Technology to provide flexible and cost-effective licensing options for its line of compilers

Offering an efficient way to manage multiple licenses, Microchip Technology has launched MPLAB XC Unified Compiler Licenses for its MPLAB XC8, XC16, XC-DSC and XC32 C compilers. This unified approach addresses the financial strain and administrative burden of purchasing and managing separate software access models for each compiler. Microchip’s solution consolidates the necessary licenses to reduce overhead and provide greater flexibility, scalability and ease of use.

The unified system is designed to accommodate evolving development needs, offering multiple tiers to suit growing teams. The Workstation License can be installed and executed on up to three host machines for use by a single engineer. The Network Server License allows installation on a server, accessible by any machine on the network, one at a time. The Subscription License is similar to the Workstation License and features a monthly renewal option. A Multi-Seat Network License can be accessed simultaneously by multiple machines or users.

“Typically, developers need separate licenses for each compiler they work with, which can be complicated and expensive. Our goal with the MPLAB XC Unified Complier License is to make it easy to work with Microchip tools,” said Rodger Richey, vice president of development systems and academic programs at Microchip. “Unified licensing provides an efficient and cost-effective solution, freeing up teams to focus on innovation and to expedite the product development process.”

MPLAB XC Compilers help streamline the design process with a toolchain of compatible compilers and debuggers and programmers that integrate with the MPLAB X Integrated Development Environment (IDE), MPLAB Xpress IDE, MPLAB Integrated Programming Environment (IPE) and MPLAB Extensions for VS Code®. The compilers support Linux®, macOS and Windows operating systems, giving designers the ability work in their preferred platform for embedded development. To learn more visit our MPLAB XC Compiler website.

Pricing and Availability

Pricing varies based on license options and user seats. For additional information and to purchase, contact a Microchip sales representative, authorized worldwide distributor or visit Microchip’s Purchasing and Client Services website, www.microchipdirect.com.

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Rohde & Schwarz and Qualcomm Technologies, Inc. have successfully validated the high-throughput performance of a 5G NR connection at 13 GHz, a band that falls within the proposed FR3 frequency range. This milestone, which the two companies will demonstrate jointly at MWC 2025 Barcelona, paves the way for the next generation of wireless networks.

Rohde & Schwarz and Qualcomm Technologies, Inc. have demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed FR3 frequency range (7.125 GHz to 24.25 GHz) for future 6G wireless networks. Through their collaborative effort, the two companies successfully validated the performance of Qualcomm Technologies’ 5G mobile test platform (MTP) using the CMX500 5G one-box signaling tester (OBT) in a maximum throughput use case at 13 GHz, a frequency band within the proposed FR3 range. This achievement confirms the potential of FR3 to deliver high data rates utilizing high modulation and coding schemes (MCS) and enhanced capacity leveraging 4×4 MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) technology.

The test setup is based on the CMX500 OBT, a future-proof multi-technology, multi-channel one-box signaling tester from Rohde & Schwarz. Its versatility allows for easy adaptation to different NR numerologies, making it the ideal choice for FR3 research and development. In this demonstration, the CMX500 OBT is used to:

• Create a signaling environment by transmitting an FR3 cell signal at 13 GHz, simulating real-world
• Conduct comprehensive analysis, verifying the device’s ability to achieve maximum throughput in the FR3 frequency range, ensuring reliable and efficient operation.

Christoph Pointner, Senior Vice President of Mobile Radio Testers at Rohde & Schwarz, says: “Our collaboration with Qualcomm Technologies demonstrates the power of joint innovation. Together, we’re accelerating the development of tomorrow’s 6G technologies, pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in wireless communication.

Tingfang Ji, Vice President of Engineering at Qualcomm Technologies, Inc., says: “We’re excited to have Rohde & Schwarz as a partner in shaping the future of mobile technology. Together, we create groundbreaking solutions that empower device manufacturers to speed up innovations in the next generation of wireless communications, ultimately enriching the mobile experience for users worldwide.”

Rohde & Schwarz and Qualcomm Technologies will jointly showcase a high-performance setup for early FR3 research featuring the CMX500 OBT at Mobile World Congress 2025 at Fira Gran Via in Barcelona in hall 5, booth 5A80. For more information on the CMX500 OBT, visit: http://www.rohde-schwarz.com/product/cmx500

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SECORA Pay Green by Infineon Technologies AG paves the way for more sustainable payment cards. This innovation together with Infineon’s active contribution to global CO2 reduction has been motivating Mastercard to admit Infineon to its Greener Payments Partnership (GPP) advisory council.

Mastercard and its industry partners are continuously working to reduce first use plastic usage in the payment card industry, seeking more sustainable solutions for card bodies. Significant progress has already been made, including increased reuse of materials, improved recyclability at the end of a card’s life cycle, and reduced overall volume of plastic used in Mastercard-branded cards. Infineon contributes to the partnership with their expertise in reducing CO₂ emissions in a sustainable chip and module production: With SECORA Pay Green, Infineon provides the technical basis to produce fully recyclable dual-interface contactless payment card bodies without additional card antenna.

According to ABI Research, customers are increasingly attracted to financial institutions that emphasize sustainable banking practices. Furthermore, more and more regulations and legal guidelines for environmental protection in the financial industry are emerging. The number of payment cards made from recycled PVC (rPVC) is forecast to increase to around 1.2 billion cards shipped worldwide by 2028, almost five times the 226 million cards shipped in 2022.

“With the introduction of SECORA Pay Green, we are not only setting a new standard for sustainable payment cards but also paving the way for a greener future in the payment industry,” said Tolgahan Yildiz, Head of the Trusted Mobile Connectivity and Transactions Product Line at Infineon. “By reducing CO2 emissions and facilitating recycling, we enable financial institutions and card issuers to make a

ABI Research, 2023

positive contribution to environmental protection while meeting growing customer demand for eco-friendly solutions.”

“Our current product offerings have proven that payment cards with enhanced recyclability can be made from sources that reduce first use plastic usage,” said Joe Pitcher, Vice President of the Mastercard Sustainable Card Program. “To further drive development and CO2 abatement, we support innovations such as Infineon’s SECORA Pay Green, which demonstrates innovative thinking and a willingness to redesign products to reduce their environmental impact.”

Going forward, Mastercard and its partners will focus on assessing and reducing CO₂ emissions across the entire card ecosystem, including the chip, module, and inlay. Infineon will support these efforts by paving the way for Infineon’s sustainable payment offering now as a new member of Mastercard’s Greener Payment Partnership. exceet Card Group, a leading European card manufacturer, has become the first one who has obtained its Mastercard Letter of Approval based on Infineon SECORA Pay Green to be able to ship sustainable contactless payment cards without an additional card inlay.

SECORA Pay Green for a more sustainable future

SECORA Pay Green is an important part of Infineon’s climate strategy to achieve carbon neutrality by 2030. The security solution enables the production of fully recyclable dual-interface contactless payment card bodies made from environmentally friendly and locally sourced materials.

Learn more about SECORA Pay Green here: www.infineon.com/secorapaygreen

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• New silicon photonics and next-gen BiCMOS proprietary technologies bring better performance to address the coming 800Gb/s and 1.6Tb/s optical interconnects.
• Developing a roadmap with partners across the value chain for higher energy efficiency pluggable optics and to address the next generation of AI clusters GPU interconnects.

STMicroelectronics, a global semiconductor leader serving customers across the spectrum of electronics applications, is unveiling its next generation of proprietary technologies for higher-performing optical interconnect in datacenters and AI clusters. With the exponential growth of AI computing needs, challenges arise in performance and energy efficiency across computing, memory, power supply, and the interconnections linking them. ST is helping hyperscalers, and the leading optical module provider, overcome those challenges with new silicon photonics and next-gen BiCMOS technologies, scheduled to ramp up from the second half of 2025 for 800Gb/s and 1.6Tb/s optical modules.

At the heart of interconnections in a datacenter are thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of optical transceivers. These devices convert optical into electrical signals and vice versa to allow data flow between graphics processing unit (GPU) computing resources, switches and storage. Inside these transceivers, ST’s new, proprietary silicon photonics (SiPho) technology will bring customers the ability to integrate multiple complex components into one single chip, while ST’s next-gen, proprietary BiCMOS technology brings ultra high-speed and low power optical connectivity, which are key to sustain the AI growth.

Fiber Optic cables and UTP Network cables connected hub ports.

“AI demand is accelerating the adoption of high-speed communication technology within the datacenter ecosystem. This is the right time for ST to introduce new power efficient silicon photonics technology and complementing it with a new generation of BiCMOS for our customers to design the next wave of optical interconnect products, which will enable 800Gbps/1.6Tbps solutions for the hyperscalers,” said Remi El-Ouazzane, President, Microcontrollers, Digital ICs and RF products Group at STMicroelectronics. “Both technologies will be manufactured on 300mm processes in Europe, bringing customers an independent high-volume supply for two key components of their optical module development strategy. Today’s announcement represents the first step for our PIC product-family and, thanks to close collaboration with key partners across the entire value chain, our ambition is to become a key supplier of silicon photonics and BiCMOS wafers for the datacenter and AI cluster market, be it pluggable optics today or optical I/O tomorrow.”

“AWS is pleased to collaborate with STMicroelectronics to develop a new silicon photonics technology (SiPho), PIC100, that will enable interconnection between any workload including Artificial Intelligence (AI). AWS is working with STMicroelectronics based on their demonstrated capability to make PIC100 a leading SiPho technology for the optical and AI market. We are enthusiastic about the potential innovations this will unlock for SiPho,” said Nafea Bshara, Vice President and Distinguished Engineer at Amazon Web Services.

“The Pluggable Optics for Data Center Market is experiencing significant growth, valued at $7 billion in 2024,” said Dr. Vladimir Kozlov, CEO and Chief Analyst at LightCounting. “This market is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 23% during 2025—2030 to exceed $24 billion at the end of this period. Market share of transceivers based on silicon photonics modulators will increase from 30% in 2024 to 60% by 2030.”

Additional information

ST’s SiPho technology combined with the ST BiCMOS technology are a unique 300mm silicon platform to serve the optical market. Both technologies are being industrialized and will be manufactured in ST’s Crolles (France/Europe) 300mm fab.

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I’m pretty sure it’s just incandescence, but the behavior of it feels odd— it only glows above 9 volts at which point current will pass and it immediately reaches full brightness— no fade-in. If I didn’t know better I’d say it acts like an LED. My guess is that it’s just reaching some breakdown voltage and after which it passes current and glows. Current passed from base-collector. Draws about 300mA at 20 volts. And yes it was already blown— no live transistors were harmed lmao submitted by /u/possibly_random [link] [comments]

Non-volatile memory is an important component in a wide range of high-performance embedded applications. Especially, many consumer, industrial, and medical applications need increased re-writability to support both more frequent code updates as well as increased data logging.

These applications require greater memory density to store either a substantially larger code footprint and/or more extensive data logs. Moreover, developers need to be able to improve power efficiency while lowering system cost.

Today, there are numerous non-volatile memory technologies available to developers, including EEPROM, NOR flash, NAND flash, MRAM, and FRAM. Each has its own distinct advantages for specific applications. However, the combination of 1) manufacturing process technologies continuing to scale smaller, 2) the need for higher densities at lower power, and 3) re-writability becoming increasing important has led to increased interest in RRAM for these applications.

This article will explore RRAM technology and how it provides developers with a new approach to meeting the changing memory requirements of high-performance embedded systems.

Memory in high-performance embedded systems

Emerging connected systems face a number of tough design challenges. For instance, medical devices—such as hearing aids, continuous glucose monitors (CGMs), and patches—must fit into a smaller form factor despite increasing data and event logging requirements necessary to enable remote monitoring and compliance with industry standards.

Next, smart equipment in Industry 4.0 systems require significantly greater code storage to facilitate functionality like remote sensing, edge processing, and firmware over-the-air (FOTA) updates for remote maintenance. Furthermore, the addition of artificial intelligence (AI) at the edge in wearables and Internet of Things (IoT) devices is driving the need for high-performance, energy-efficient non-volatile memory in smaller form factors.

The increased code size and data logging requirements of such systems exceeds the embedded non-volatile memory capabilities of microcontrollers. External memory is needed to match increasing density and performance requirements. However, code and data often need varying capabilities depending upon performance, density, endurance, and data-write size.

Thus, multiple non-volatile memories may have to be used, such as NOR flash for data logging and high-density EEPROM for code storage. This can lead to systems that use several types of external memory, increasing system cost, complexity, and energy consumption.

Ideally, systems can use a single memory type that supports both external code and data storage without compromising performance or functionality for either. An emerging non-volatile technology to fill this gap as a standalone external memory is RRAM.

Resistive RAM

Resistive RAM (RRAM) is a non-volatile random-access memory that was made available commercially in the early 2000s. It operates by changing the resistance of a switching material sandwiched between two electrodes, show on left in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Typical RRAM memory cell consists of one transistor and one resistor (left), and the memory state is altered by applying an external bias across the metal electrodes (right). Source: Infineon

The switching material can be metal oxide or a conductive bridging switching media. A typical RRAM memory cell consists of one transistor and one resistor pair (1T1R) where the resistance of the RRAM can be altered with an external bias applied across the metal electrodes, shown on the right side of Figure 1.

Initially, RRAM was developed as a potential replacement for flash memory. At the time, the cost and performance benefits of RRAM weren’t enough to supersede the advantages of other non-volatile memory technologies, especially as an external memory. However, in recent years, several factors have changed to make RRAM a compelling non-volatile alternative.

Specifically, as embedded systems become more integrated and implemented in smaller manufacturing process nodes with substantially larger code and data storage requirements, the following advantages of RRAM for external memory overtake traditional non-volatile options:

1. Scalability

Some non-volatile memory technologies are limited in their ability to scale, translating to limitations in overall memory density due to footprint, power, and cost. A major advantage of RRAM is that it can be manufactured in a compatible CMOS process, enabling it to scale to process nodes below 45 nm and even down as low as 10 nm.

For example, the memory industry has had difficulty cost-effectively scaling NOR flash memory as the technology seems to be physically limited to between 35 and 40 nm. Scalability has a direct impact on performance, density, footprint, and energy efficiency.

2. Direct write

Data storage for a NOR flash memory requires two operations: an erase operation to clear the target address followed by a write operation. The “direct write” functionality of RRAM eliminates the need to first erase memory. Thus, only a write operation is required to store data. Figure 2 shows the operations required for writing to both NOR flash and RRAM.

Figure 2 NOR flash requires an erase operation before every write operation, increasing write time, energy consumption, and wear on memory cells. RRAM’s ability to direct write speeds write operations, conserves energy, and extends cell endurance. Source: Infineon

This leads to much faster large-scale write operations for RRAM, such as during FOTA updates.

3. Byte re-writeable

Some non-volatile memories perform writes based on page size. For example, NOR flash page size is typically either 256 or 512 bytes. This means every write impacts the entire page. To change one byte, the page must be read and stored in a temporary buffer; the change is made to the temporary duplicate.

The flash must then erase the page and write the entire page back in from the buffer. This process is time-consuming and wears the flash (typically 100k+ writes). In addition, data cells that are not changed are worn unnecessarily. Consequently, data logging with NOR flash requires that data is cached and then written in page-sized chunks, adding complexity and potential data loss during a power event.

In contrast, RRAM write size is much smaller (few bytes) with higher endurance than NOR flash. This is more manageable and accommodates data logging requirements well since cells are worn only when written to. Thus, RRAM is robust and efficient for both code storage and data logging in the same memory device.

4. Energy efficiency

Through optimizations such as byte re-writability and eliminating erase operations during data writes, RRAM achieves better energy efficiency, up to 5x lower write energy and up to 8x lower read energy compared to traditional NOR flash.

5. Radiation tolerance and electromagnetic immunity

RRAM technology is inherently tolerant to radiation and electromagnetic interference (EMI). This makes RRAM an excellent choice for those applications where environmental robustness is essential.

Consolidate code storage and data logging

RRAM is a proven technology whose time has come. It’s an established technology that has been in embedded form in chips for over a decade as an internal non-volatile memory. With its ability to scale to smaller process nodes, provide higher endurance and re-writability at low power, and minimize write time and power consumption through direct write functionality, RRAM delivers high performance without compromising robustness or efficiency (Table 1).

Table 1 The above data shows a comparison between RRAM and other non-volatile memory technologies. Source: Infineon

RRAM is an ideal memory for consolidating both code storage and data logging in a single external memory to simplify design and reduce system complexity, making RRAM a compelling alternative to traditional non-volatile memories for many consumer, industrial, and medical applications.

Bobby John is senior product marketing manager for memory solutions at Infineon Technologies.

Related Content

• Resistive RAM Memory is Finally Here
• RRAM set to follow 3-D flash, says IMEC
• RRAM: A New Approach to Embedded Memory
• RRAM Startup Raises £7M to Support Data-Hungry Applications
• Monolithic embedded RRAM presents challenges, opportunities

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