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Editor’s Note: This DI is a two-part series.

Part 1 shows how to make an oscillator with a pitch that is proportional to a control voltage.

Part 2 shows how to modify the circuit for use with higher supply voltages, implement it using discrete parts, and modify it to closely approximate a sine wave.

In Part 1, we saw how to make an oscillator whose pitch, as opposed to frequency, can be made proportional to a control voltage. In this second part, we’ll look at some alternative ways of arranging things for other possible applications.

Wow the engineering world with your unique design: Design Ideas Submission Guide

To start with, Figure 1 shows a revised version of the basic circuit, built with B-series CMOS to allow rail voltages of up to 18 or 20 V rather than the nominal 5 V of the original.

Figure 1 A variant on Part 1’s Figure 2, allowing operation with a supply of up to 20 V.

Apart from U2’s change from a 74HC74 to a CD/HEF4013B, the main difference is in U1. With a 12 V rail, TL062/072/082s and even LM358s and MC1458s all worked well, as did an LM393 comparator with an output pull-up resistor. The control voltage’s span increases with supply voltage, but remains at ~±20% of Vs. Note that because we’re only sensing within that central portion, the restricted input ranges of those devices was not a problem.

Something that was a problem, even with the original 5-V MCP6002, was a frequent inability to begin oscillating. Unlike the 74HC74, a 4013 has active-high R and S inputs, so U1a’s polarity must be flipped. It tends to start up with its output high, which effectively locks U2a into an all-1s condition, forcing Q1 permanently on. That explains the need for R5/C5/Q2. If (when!) the sticky condition occurs, Q2 will turn on, shorting C2 so that Q1 can turn off and oscillation commence. A reverse diode across R5 proved unnecessary at the low frequencies involved.

This could also be built using the extra constant-current sink, shown in Part 1’s Figure 4, but then U1 would need to have rail-to-rail inputs.

This is an extension of the first version that I tried, which was built without logic ICs. It’s neat and works, but U1a could only output pulses, which needed stretching to be useful. (Using a flip-flop guaranteed the duty cycle, while the spare section, used as a monostable, generated much better-defined reset pulses.) The circuit shown in Figure 2 works around this and can be built for pretty much any rail voltage you choose, as long as U1 and the MOSFETS are chosen appropriately.

Figure 2 This all-discrete version (apart from the op-amps) uses a second section to produce an output having a duty cycle close to 50%.

U1b’s circuitry is a duplicate of U1a’s but with half the time-constant. It’s reset in the same way and its control voltage is the same, so its output pulses have half the width of a full cycle, giving a square wave (or nearly so). Ideally, Q1 and Q3 should be matched, with C3 exactly half of C1 rather than the practical 47n shown. R7 is only necessary if the rail voltage exceeds the gate-source limits for Q1/3. (ZVP3306As are rated at 20 V max.)

The final variation—see Figure 3—goes back to using logic and has a reasonably sinusoidal output, should you need that.

Figure 3 Here the oscillator runs 16 times faster than the output frequency. Dividing the pulse rate down using a twisted-ring counter with resistors on its 8 outputs gives a stepped approximation to a sine wave.

The oscillator itself runs at 16 times the output frequency. The pulse-generating monostable multivibrator (MSMV) now uses a pair of cross-coupled gates, and not only feeds Q1 but also clocks an 8-bit shift register (implemented here as two 4-bit ones), whose final output is inverted and fed back to its D input. That’s known as a twisted-ring or Johnson counter and is a sort of digital Möbius band. As the signal is shifted past each Q output, it has 8 high bits followed by 8 low ones, repeated indefinitely. U2c not only performs the inversion but also delivers a brief, solid high to U3a’s D input at start-up to initialize the register.

U2 and U3 are shown as high-voltage CMOS parts to allow for operation at much more than 5 V. Again, U1 would then need changing, perhaps to a rail-to-rail input (RRI) part if the extra current source is added. 74HC132s and 74HC4015s (or ’HC164s) work fine at ~5 V.

The Q outputs feed a common point through resistors selected to give an output which, though stepped, is close to a sine wave, as Figure 4 should make clear. R4 sets the output level and C4 provides some filtering. (Different sets of resistors can give different tone colors. For example, if they are all equal, the output (if stepped) will be a good triangle wave.)

Figure 4 Waveforms illustrating the operation of Figure 3’s circuit when it’s delivering ~500 Hz.

The steps correspond to the 15th and 17th harmonics, which, though somewhat filtered by C4/R4, are still at ~-45 dB. To reduce them, add a simple two-pole Sallen–Key filter, like that in Figure 5, which also shows the filtered spectrum for an output of around 500 Hz.

Figure 5 A suitable output filter for adding to Figure 3, and the resulting spectrum.

The 2nd and 3rd harmonics are still at around -60 dB, but the others are now well below -70 dB, so we can claim around -57 dB or 0.16% THD, which will be worse at 250 Hz and better at 2 kHz. This approach won’t work too well if you want the full 4–5-octave span (extra current sink) unless the filter is made tunable: perhaps a couple of resistive opto-isolators combined with R14/15, driven by another voltage-controlled current source?

All that is interesting, but rather pointless. After all, the main purpose of this design idea was to make useful audible tones, not precision sine waves, which sound boring anyway. But a secondary purpose should be to push things as far as possible, while having fun experimenting!

Given a pitch-linear tone source, it seemed silly not to try make some kind of musical thingy using a tappable linear resistance. A couple of feet, or about 10kΩ’s-worth, of Teledeltos chart paper (which I always knew would come in handy, as the saying goes) wrapped round a length of plastic pipe with a smooth, shiny croc clip for the tap or slider (plus a 330k pull-down) worked quite well, allowing tunes to be picked out as on a Stylophone or an air guitar. Electro-punk lives! Though it’s not so much “Eat your heart out, Jimi Hendrix” as “Get those earplugs in”.

—Nick Cornford built his first crystal set at 10, and since then has designed professional audio equipment, many datacomm products, and technical security kit. He has at last retired. Mostly. Sort of.

Related Content

• A pitch-linear VCO, part 1: Getting it going
• VCO using the TL431 reference
• Ultra-low distortion oscillator, part 1: how not to do it.
• How to control your impulses—part 1
• Squashed triangles: sines, but with teeth?
• Simple 5-component oscillator works below 0.8V
• A two transistor sine wave oscillator

The post A pitch-linear VCO, part 2: taking it further appeared first on EDN.

Bomber jets play a crucial role in modern warfare, offering strategic deterrence, precision strike capabilities, and unparalleled aerial dominance. With advancements in stealth technology, electronic warfare, and long-range missile systems, the world’s leading air forces operate some of the most advanced bomber aircraft ever built. This article highlights the top 10 bomber jets based on speed, payload capacity, stealth, and combat effectiveness.

1. Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider (USA)

Overview:

The B-21 Raider is the newest strategic stealth bomber under development for the U.S. Air Force. Designed to replace the B-2 Spirit, it is expected to be the backbone of America’s bomber fleet.

Key Features:

• Stealth Technology: Advanced radar-evading capabilities
• Payload Capacity: Estimated 15,000-20,000 kg
• Range: Over 9,000 km
• Multi-role Capabilities: Can carry nuclear and conventional weapons
• AI and Network-Centric Warfare Integration

2. Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit (USA)

Overview:

The B-2 Spirit is the world’s first operational stealth bomber, designed for deep penetration missions in heavily defended airspace.

Key Features:

• Radar Absorbent Materials: Minimizes radar cross-section
• Payload Capacity: 23,000 kg
• Range: 11,000 km without refueling
• Precision Strike Capability: Advanced targeting systems

3. Tupolev Tu-160M (Russia)

Overview:

Known as the “White Swan,” the Tu-160M is the fastest and heaviest supersonic bomber in the world. The modernized Tu-160M variant features new avionics and weapons systems.

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 2.05
• Payload Capacity: 40,000 kg
• Range: 12,300 km
• Modernization: Equipped with new digital avionics and hypersonic missile capabilities

4. Rockwell B-1B Lancer (USA)

Overview:

The B-1B Lancer is a variable-sweep wing bomber designed for supersonic speeds and low-altitude penetration.

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 1.25
• Payload Capacity: 34,000 kg
• Range: 9,400 km
• Electronic Warfare Suite: Advanced countermeasures for survival in contested airspace

5. Xian H-20 (China)

Overview:

China’s upcoming H-20 stealth bomber aims to rival the B-2 Spirit, with cutting-edge stealth technology and long-range capabilities.

Key Features:

• Stealth Design: Similar to B-2 and B-21
• Range: Estimated 8,500 km
• Payload Capacity: Expected 20,000-25,000 kg
• Strategic Nuclear and Conventional Strike Capabilities

6. Tupolev Tu-95MS (Russia)

Overview:

Nicknamed the “Bear,” the Tu-95MS is a long-range, turboprop-powered strategic bomber known for its efficiency and extended operational life.

Key Features:

• Speed: 925 km/h (Mach 0.8)
• Range: 15,000 km with aerial refueling
• Payload Capacity: 15,000 kg
• Nuclear Cruise Missile Delivery Platform

7. Sukhoi Su-34 Fullback (Russia)

Overview:

The Su-34 is a tactical bomber with significant air-to-ground strike capabilities, often referred to as a “fighter-bomber.”

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 1.8
• Payload Capacity: 12,000 kg
• Range: 4,500 km
• Maneuverability: Fighter-like agility with bomber-level strike power

8. Boeing B-52H Stratofortress (USA)

Overview:

The legendary B-52H remains in service for over 70 years, known for its endurance and heavy payload capacity.

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 0.85
• Range: 14,000 km without refueling
• Payload Capacity: 31,500 kg
• Versatility: Capable of carrying nuclear and conventional weapons

9. Dassault Mirage 2000D (France)

Overview:

A French multirole fighter-bomber, the Mirage 2000D specializes in precision strike missions.

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 2.2
• Payload Capacity: 9,000 kg
• Range: 3,300 km
• Advanced Targeting Systems: Precision-guided munitions capabilities

10. Shenyang JH-7 Flying Leopard (China)

Overview:

A Chinese fighter-bomber designed for ground attack and anti-ship missions.

Key Features:

• Speed: Mach 1.75
• Payload Capacity: 9,000 kg
• Range: 3,900 km
• Naval Strike Capability: Equipped with anti-ship missiles

The evolution of bomber jets reflects the technological advancements in stealth, speed, payload capacity, and mission versatility. The upcoming B-21 Raider, China’s H-20, and modernized versions of legacy bombers continue to push the boundaries of aerial warfare. As nations invest in next-generation air combat capabilities, these bomber jets remain the backbone of strategic deterrence and global power projection.

The post Top 10 Bomber Jets in the World: The Ultimate Aerial Dominators appeared first on ELE Times.

With the increasing integration of electronics in critical applications such as automotive, healthcare, industrial automation, and consumer devices, security concerns have become paramount. “Security by Design” is a proactive approach that ensures cybersecurity is embedded into electronic systems from the conceptual stage rather than being patched later. This article explores the latest industry trends, best practices, and challenges in implementing Security by Design in electronics.

Traditional security models often rely on reactive measures, addressing vulnerabilities only after they are exploited. This approach is no longer sufficient as cyber threats become more sophisticated and widespread. Security by Design ensures that electronic systems are built with security features ingrained, reducing risks and enhancing resilience.

• Reduced Attack Surface: By incorporating security measures from the design phase, the potential vulnerabilities are minimized, making it harder for attackers to exploit weaknesses in hardware and software.
• Regulatory Compliance: Various industries are enforcing strict cybersecurity regulations, including ISO/SAE 21434 for automotive cybersecurity and IEC 62443 for industrial control systems, necessitating security integration at every development stage.
• Cost Efficiency: Fixing security flaws after deployment is significantly more expensive than incorporating security at the design level. Security by Design minimizes costly recalls, patching, and reputation damage.
• Enhanced Trust and Reliability: As users become more security-conscious, products that incorporate robust cybersecurity measures build higher trust and long-term adoption.

1. Hardware Root of Trust (RoT)

A secure foundation starts with hardware. Modern electronic devices incorporate Root of Trust (RoT) mechanisms to provide immutable trust anchors. These security elements ensure that the device only executes authenticated firmware and software components.

• Secure Boot: This process ensures that only digitally signed and verified firmware is executed, preventing boot-level malware injections. Secure Boot is implemented using cryptographic techniques such as RSA-2048 or ECC-based signing.
• Trusted Platform Module (TPM): TPM chips provide a secure vault for cryptographic keys, ensuring that sensitive credentials, digital certificates, and passwords are protected against tampering or extraction.
• Physical Unclonable Functions (PUF): PUF technology leverages the inherent variations in silicon manufacturing to generate unique, unclonable cryptographic identities for devices, making hardware-level authentication robust.

2. Secure Firmware Development

Firmware is the bridge between hardware and software, making it a prime target for attackers. Implementing security best practices in firmware development mitigates risks.

• Secure Coding Standards: Adopting standards such as MISRA C (automotive) and CERT C (embedded systems) reduces common vulnerabilities like buffer overflows and memory corruption.
• Firmware Signing and Authentication: Digitally signed firmware ensures that unauthorized modifications or tampered firmware are rejected by the device, maintaining integrity.
• Over-the-Air (OTA) Secure Updates: Secure update mechanisms use cryptographic verification (e.g., ECDSA signatures) to prevent rollback attacks and unauthorized firmware injections.

3. Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA)

Zero Trust is a cybersecurity model that assumes no implicit trust within a system and requires continuous verification.

• Continuous Authentication: Devices and users must authenticate at every stage, employing multi-factor authentication (MFA) and cryptographic validation.
• Micro-Segmentation: Network segmentation isolates sensitive components from untrusted environments, limiting the potential spread of malware and unauthorized access.
• Real-Time Anomaly Detection: AI-powered security analytics continuously monitor system behavior to detect deviations from normal operation, triggering alerts for potential breaches.

4. End-to-End Encryption

Data security is crucial in modern electronics, especially for IoT and cloud-connected devices. Encryption ensures confidentiality and integrity in data transmission and storage.

• TLS 1.3 for Secure Communication: This cryptographic protocol eliminates weak encryption algorithms, enforcing strong cipher suites for protecting data-in-transit.
• AES-256 Encryption for Data-at-Rest: Sensitive device information is protected using hardware-based encryption modules to mitigate unauthorized data extraction.
• Quantum-Safe Cryptography: With quantum computing on the horizon, post-quantum cryptographic algorithms like CRYSTALS-Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium are being integrated into security frameworks to future-proof devices.

5. Supply Chain Security

A secure product is only as strong as its weakest component. Supply chain attacks have increased, necessitating rigorous vetting of components and firmware sources.

• Supplier Security Audits: Regular assessment of component suppliers ensures that they adhere to security best practices.
• Secure Hardware Provenance: Implementing blockchain-based tracking of hardware components provides verifiable authenticity and prevents counterfeiting.
• Regular Risk Assessments: Threat modeling of supply chain processes ensures early detection of vulnerabilities and risk mitigation strategies.

1. Automotive Security

The rise of software-defined vehicles (SDVs) and autonomous driving has made automotive security a top priority. OEMs are adopting standards like ISO/SAE 21434 and UNECE WP.29 to enforce cybersecurity in connected vehicles.

• Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): These systems actively monitor in-vehicle networks for anomalous activities and unauthorized access attempts.
• Secure CAN Bus Communication: Implementing MACsec encryption protects automotive communication from malicious interference and spoofing.
• AI-Powered Anomaly Detection: Machine learning algorithms analyze driving patterns and vehicle behaviors to detect cybersecurity threats.

2. Industrial IoT (IIoT) Security

Industry 4.0 has led to an increased attack surface for industrial control systems, necessitating strong security measures.

• Secure OT-IT Convergence: Segregating operational technology (OT) from traditional IT networks prevents industrial cyber-espionage and ransomware attacks.
• Firmware Integrity Attestation: Hardware-level security checks validate firmware integrity before execution to prevent tampering.
• AI-Driven Predictive Threat Analytics: AI models analyze historical attack data to predict and prevent cyber threats before they occur.

3. Chip-Level Security Advancements

Semiconductor companies are embedding advanced security features into SoCs and microcontrollers to enhance device security.

• Arm TrustZone & RISC-V PMP: These security architectures enable hardware isolation for secure execution environments.
• Intel SGX & AMD SEV: Secure enclave technologies protect sensitive computations from OS-level threats.
• Post-Quantum Cryptographic Accelerators: Hardware-integrated PQC support ensures future resilience against quantum computing threats.

• Balancing Security and Performance: Stronger security measures often introduce computational overhead. Leveraging cryptographic hardware accelerators helps maintain efficiency.
• Cost Constraints: Security implementations can increase development costs. However, long-term savings from preventing security breaches outweigh initial expenses.
• Evolving Threat Landscape: Cyber threats constantly evolve, requiring continuous security updates and patching. AI-driven security analytics improve proactive threat detection.
• Compliance and Regulatory Challenges: Adhering to global security standards requires robust security frameworks, structured security testing, and lifecycle management strategies.

1. AI-Driven Security

AI is transforming cybersecurity by enabling real-time anomaly detection and automated threat mitigation.

• Adaptive Authentication: AI models analyze user behavior to detect suspicious access attempts.
• Behavioral Anomaly Detection: ML algorithms detect deviations from normal device operations to identify cyber threats.
• Automated Security Patch Deployment: AI-driven updates help close vulnerabilities without manual intervention.

2. Blockchain for IoT Security

Blockchain enhances trust and traceability in device security frameworks.

• Decentralized Identity Management: Prevents unauthorized device authentication.
• Secure Firmware Provenance Tracking: Ensures software authenticity and tamper-proof updates.
• Tamper-Proof Transaction Logs: Protects against log manipulation and fraud.

Security by Design is no longer optional—it is imperative for safeguarding electronic systems in an era of increasing cyber threats. As cyberattacks grow in complexity, integrating security from the outset ensures resilience, regulatory compliance, and trustworthiness. Future trends like AI-driven security, quantum-resistant cryptography, and blockchain-based trust mechanisms will further strengthen the security landscape, making it crucial for industries to adopt proactive cybersecurity strategies today.

The post Security by Design in Electronics: A Proactive Approach to Cybersecurity appeared first on ELE Times.

Combining the comfort of automation, customisation, intelligence and energy efficiency – the lighting industry is erupting with various innovations. Organised by Messe Frankfurt Trade Fairs India, LED Expo Mumbai is India’s only dedicated platform covering everything light. With 200+ exhibitors featuring about 6,000+ products, the upcoming edition of LED Expo Mumbai will be held from 3 – 5 April 2025 at the Bombay Exhibition Centre, Mumbai, organised by Messe Frankfurt Trade Fairs India.

LED Expo Mumbai will present a unique amalgamation of LED lighting solutions that not only serves the lighting industry but also delves deep into relatively new concepts such as smart lights, LEDs for design and décor, LEDs for atmospheric lighting and wellness, and problem-solving innovations such as biomimicry in lighting applications. The upcoming edition has registered growth from the electrical segment with 20+ exhibitors.

Crucial industry highlights surfaced from an exhibitor survey conducted with those participating in the upcoming edition, highlighted the following:

• Architectural projects and commercial buildings have shown a greater adoption of smart lighting and automation products. However, the story changes in tier-2 and tier-3 cities where the adoption of such products is on a slower pace. Common hindrances like supply chain, power outages, etc., are challenging the large-scale adoption.
• Exhibitors also pointed out that many components are sourced internationally.
• To make the LED lighting industry self-reliant, government schemes are encouraging the localisation of components and high-quality production of LED products. India’s LED lighting industry is growing steadily with key initiatives like the Smart Cities Mission and the growing demand for housing in India.
• It is also active in installing solar-based LED lights under the rural electrification programme, especially in the northeast

Expressing his thoughts, Mr Raj Manek, Executive Director of Messe Frankfurt Asia Holdings Ltd, stated: “The Indian infrastructure landscape has witnessed remarkable growth, opening new avenues for the LED lighting industry. Beyond illumination, LED technology is revolutionising with applications such as beautification projects, indoor and outdoor decoration, wellness, street lighting and public places lighting, amongst many others. LED lights – apart from being energy efficient are becoming more brighter, keeping down the energy

consumption. I am happy to share that the LED and the lighting industry will once again unite at LED Expo Mumbai 2025 to present the innovations for the future towards which India is advancing. Over the years, we have also observed a significant rise in participation from the electrical segment, further strengthening the ecosystem.”

During the show, curated knowledge sessions will bring industry experts on the dais sharing insights from their experience in the segment.

3 April 2025 | Panel Discussion

• CXO Power Panel – Balancing Design, Innovation and Manufacturing Excellence in the Lighting Industry” by Women In Lighting, India

4 April 2025 |Technical Workshops

• Acoustic Lights” by Silence Acoustics
• Biomimicry Designs & their Impact on the environment” by Studio Black Canvas
• Intelligent LED Power Supplies: Importance of safety standards and energy saving! Achieve the 2050 net-zero carbon emission target through energy conservation
• Panel Discussionin collaboration with Indian Society of Landscape Architecture (ISOLA)

Some growing applications in India’s LED lighting industry are landscape lighting in infrastructure projects and floodlights in stadiums. These are predicted to drive the growth of the luminaires segment. As India plans to a rapid transformation with large-scale public projects. A recent report by Mordor Intelligence pointed out that the industrial and warehouse segment dominates the Indian LED lighting industry, with nearly 58% of the total indoor LED lighting market share in 2024. It also states that automotive headlights have emerged as the dominant segment in India’s automotive utility LED lighting market accounting approximately 35% market share in 2024.

The event has garnered support from the prestigious industry bodies and associations including: Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST), Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) – a unit of the Ministry of Power, Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) – a Government of Maharashtra Institute, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), The Electric Merchants Association (EMA) and Women in Lighting India (WIL).

The upcoming event promises to display an engaging showcase of lighting solutions that are the future of connected lighting solutions, sensor-based lighting, energy-efficient lighting, landscape lighting, decorative and architectural lights and much more, influencing the professionals thoughtfully using lighting and LED products regularly. Prestigious brands like Aastha LED, Demak Italy, Power Plazzo, Network INC, Tektroniks, JN Lighting LLP (Tinge) and Zylos, among others are set to unveil their latest innovations. With this, LED Expo Mumbai will continue to elevate the experience of the exhibitors and visitors offering a dynamic marketplace for industry dialogues and future-ready solutions.

LED Expo Mumbai is a part of Messe Frankfurt’s Light + Building Technology fair portfolio, which is headlined by the biennial Light + Building event in Frankfurt, Germany.

The post Get ready for three days of luminous odyssey with LED Expo Mumbai appeared first on ELE Times.

Realizing Advanced Endpoint Vision AI While Reducing System Size and Cost with a Power-Efficient MPU that Eliminates the Need for Cooling Fans

The post Renesas Extends Mid-Class AI Processor Line-Up with RZ/V2N Integrating DRP-AI Accelerator for Smart Factories and Intelligent Cities of Tomorrow appeared first on ELE Times.