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Radar, communications, and sensing systems increasingly rely on phased array antennas to achieve agile, precise beam steering without mechanical motion. As bandwidths widen to support higher data rates and better resolution, traditional phase-shifter-based architectures reach their limits, particularly due to beam squint and degraded performance at band edges.

True time delay (TTD) techniques, implemented using time delay units (TDUs), address these challenges by providing frequency-independent delay across the array, enabling accurate wideband beamforming in advanced active electronically scanned arrays (AESAs).

Phased array antenna fundamentals: AESA architecture and electronic beam steering

Phased arrays use multiple antenna elements arranged in uniform linear arrays (ULAs) or uniform rectangular arrays (URAs), with each element driven by a controlled phase or time delay. By adjusting these controls, the array forms narrow beams in desired directions and suppresses unwanted directions, eliminating the need for mechanical steering.

In AESA architectures, each element—or small group of elements—typically has its own transmit/receive (T/R) module, enabling multi-beam and multi-frequency operation for radar, satellite links, and advanced wireless systems.

Figure 1 Simplified phased array antenna features multiple elements with controllable phase or time delay, enabling electronic beam steering without mechanical motion. Source: Qorvo

Phased array performance may be summarized by two system-level figures of merit. Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) is expressed in dBm (referenced to 1 mW) or dBW (referenced to 1 W) and equals transmit power plus antenna gain (in dBi), assuming no cable or connector losses.

Gain-to-noise-temperature ratio (G/T) measures receive sensitivity by comparing antenna gain to system noise temperature; higher G/T values correspond to better detection and signal quality, especially important for satellite and deep-space links.

Wideband beam squint: Why phase shifters fail in high-bandwidth phased arrays

Wider instantaneous bandwidths have benefits: operation over multiple channels or bands, improved range resolution in radar, and higher data rates in communications. However, wideband operation exposes a key limitation of pure phase-shifter-based beamforming: the phase shift needed for a given steering angle depends on frequency, so a single-phase setting at the center frequency does not steer all frequencies to the same angle.

This misalignment creates beam squint, where the main beam moves with frequency across the band. At the center frequency, the beam points at the desired angle, but at the band edges, it becomes under-steered or over-steered, redistributing gain and degrading EIRP and G/T in the intended direction.

Figure 2 Illustration of beam squint in a phased array: a single-phase setting at the center frequency steers the beam correctly at F0, but under‑steers at Fmax and over‑steers at Fmin. Source: Qorvo

Why beam squint occurs for wider-band systems is illustrated in Figure 3. Beam steering using phase shifts per element attempts to ensure that energy at each element in the array arrives at the same phase for coherent summation in the beamforming network. When the beam is steered off-boresight (θ > 0), some energy arrives at one edge of the array before it arrives at the opposite edge; the extra path length is N * d * sin θ, where N is the number of elements across the array, θ is the beam steering angle, and d is the element spacing.

Figure 3 Path‑length difference in an off‑boresight phased array, showing how the extra distance N * d * sin θ at the farthest element translates into a frequency‑dependent phase shift requirement and leads to beam squint when only fixed phase shifters are used. Source: Qorvo

Dividing this longer path length by the wavelength at F0 and multiplying by 360 degrees gives the phase shift that must be applied at the farthest element. At Fmax the wavelength is shorter, so the required phase shift is larger; at Fmin the wavelength is longer, so the required phase shift is smaller, which is why a single phase shift per element at F0 leads to under‑steering at Fmax and over‑steering at Fmin.

In high-gain, narrow-beam arrays, even modest squint can cause large link-budget penalties at the band edges, while lower-gain, wide-beam arrays are more tolerant of the same angular movement.

Whether an array needs true time delay depends on the relationship between beam squint and beamwidth. Smaller arrays with broader beams can often accept the squint induced by phase-only steering, whereas large arrays with narrow beams and wide bandwidths require TTD to maintain beam pointing and gain across the full band. Design factors such as array size, element spacing, scan angle, and center frequency all feed into this assessment, with wide scan angles and high frequencies typically increasing sensitivity to timing errors.

Figure 4 Example gain patterns for the same beam movement in high‑gain, narrow‑beam and low‑gain, wide‑beam antennas, showing how beam squint produces much larger gain loss at the band edges in high‑gain arrays and necessitates the use of true time delay. Source: Qorvo

True time delay vs phase shifters: Performance comparison for wideband arrays

Traditional phase shifters implement a fixed insertion phase at a given frequency, which works well for narrowband systems since phase and delay can be treated interchangeably over a small bandwidth. As bandwidth increases, the frequency dependence of phase shift becomes problematic: the constant phase setting no longer corresponds to the correct time delay across the entire signal spectrum, causing beam squint and waveform distortion.

True time delay elements, by contrast, provide a fixed time delay, so the resulting phase shift increases linearly with frequency. This linear phase slope ensures that signals of all frequencies within the band experience the same effective delay through the array, aligning their phases at the combining point and maintaining beam direction. So, for wideband, high-performance arrays, especially those requiring fine resolution or long range, TTD becomes essential rather than optional.

In practice, many systems adopt hybrid architectures that combine phase shifters and TDUs. Phase shifters can handle fine steering around a nominal direction or serve narrowband modes, while TDUs provide coarse or wideband delay control to prevent squint across the full band. The design challenge is to balance cost, die area, power, and complexity against bandwidth and performance goals, choosing where in the array hierarchy (element, subarray, or tile level) TDUs should be inserted.

Integrating TDUs into AESA tile and subarray architectures

In AESAs, antenna elements are often grouped into modular tiles, each containing beamforming ICs (BFICs), RF front-ends, and other control circuitry. Within each tile, TDUs can provide precise synchronization across elements or subarrays, ensuring that signals combine coherently in the desired direction over wide bandwidths. Typical TDUs offer delay steps in the picosecond range, allowing fine-grained control of beam pointing and compensation for channel-to-channel variations.

Wide instantaneous bandwidth is particularly important for high-resolution radar, where shorter pulse widths improve range resolution but demand larger bandwidth. For example, a ULA operating at a 10 GHz center frequency with a 1.5 GHz signal bandwidth and 16 elements with half-wavelength spacing may be limited to a 60-degree scan range if phase-only steering is used and signal degradation must be held within acceptable bounds. Beyond such limits, true time delay, rather than approximate phase-based delay, is required to preserve beam integrity and resolution across the full spectrum.

Calculating TTD requirements for ULA design

In uniform linear arrays, the delay required at each element can be derived from the desired scan angle, element spacing, and operating frequency. A phase shifter with a given resolution, say a 6-bit device with a least significant bit (LSB) of 5.625 degrees, corresponds to a particular minimum time delay increment at the operating frequency; at 10 GHz, this phase step translates to approximately 1.5 picoseconds of delay. To replace such a phase shifter with a TDU, the delay unit must support at least the same or finer time resolution to maintain equivalent steering granularity.

For arrays with up to 16 elements per side and scan angles up to about 60 degrees, the total required delay at the outer elements can reach around 650 picoseconds. Designers may implement this total delay using cascaded TDUs or a combination of coarse and fine delay stages, distributing the delay across the RF chain to meet both performance and implementation constraints. This approach enables larger or more agile arrays while maintaining precise control of beam pointing over wide frequency ranges.

TDU topologies: Switched lines, ATLs, and LC networks

TDUs can be realized with several circuit topologies, each offering trade-offs in terms of noise, insertion loss, die area, and linearity. Switched delay lines use multiple physical line lengths selected by RF switches to create discrete delay values; they tend to provide low noise and low insertion loss but require more chip area, especially at longer maximum delays.

Artificial transmission lines (ATLs) use synthetic line structures to achieve compact delay implementations, trading size for higher loss and potentially increased noise. LC-based delay networks implement analog delay using lumped inductors and capacitors, offering fine control and tunability but adding design complexity and sensitivity to component tolerances.

Digital delay lines, familiar with digital signal processing, use switched digital paths to provide quantized delays, making them attractive for architectures that need both coarse and fine control and may integrate closely with digital beamformers. Each topology represents a different balance between delay precision, footprint, insertion loss, and linearity, and system-level simulations are typically required to identify the optimal choice for a given application.

Integrating TTD in RFICs: Monolithic microwave circuits for wideband phased arrays

Historically, true time delay could be implemented with coaxial cables, optical fibers, or microstrip and stripline networks, but these approaches often struggle with size, weight, and cost in large, high-frequency arrays. Monolithic microwave integrated crcuits (MMICs) now provide a more practical and scalable solution, integrating delay elements, switches, and equalization within compact RFICs.

Advances in CMOS, GaAs, and MEMS technologies have reduced the size and power consumption of TTD circuits while improving bandwidth and delay resolution.

A typical MMIC-based TDU may combine switched or artificial transmission lines with wideband distributed gain amplifiers and gain-slope equalizers to compensate for frequency-dependent loss and maintain flat group delay across the band. Integration with beamforming ICs and RF front-end modules allows designers to place TTD functionality at the element, subarray, or tile level, trading semiconductor area against array-level performance and flexibility.

Why TTD matters: Wideband array performance and future-proof AESA design

From a system perspective, true time delay provides consistent beam steering across wide frequency ranges, improving signal quality, resolution, and link margin at the band edges. By effectively eliminating beam squint across the operating bandwidth and preserving coherent combining across the array, TTD enhances both EIRP and G/T, directly impacting radar detection performance and communications reliability.

In demanding environments and applications, such as defense radar, satellite payloads, and next-generation wireless backhaul, this can be decisive in meeting performance requirements. Beyond immediate performance gains, TTD also supports future proofing. As bandwidth requirements continue to grow and spectral environments become more complex, architectures that already incorporate wideband-capable TDUs and hybrid TTD/phase-shifter beamforming are better positioned to adapt without wholesale redesign.

For engineers and decision-makers, the key takeaway is that while phase shifters remain suitable for narrowband or cost-sensitive systems, TTD is becoming a critical enabler of competitive, high-performance wideband phased arrays.

David Schnaufer is technical marketing communications manager at Qorvo, where he leverages his extensive technical and strategic experience to develop insightful, thought leadership content. Throughout his career at Qorvo, he has served several roles, including senior manager of strategic marketing and product marketing manager.

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ROHM has developed a 2nd Generation terahertz (THz) wave oscillation device using semiconductor elements known as Resonant Tunneling Diodes (RTDs). ROHM is making the device available via the RTD-EVK-G2 Terahertz Wave Device Evaluation Kit, which includes a sample device, cable, and evaluation board. The kit enables companies and research institutions to evaluate THz wave oscillation and detection in a compact development environment.

Occupying the frequency region between radio waves and light, terahertz waves combine the penetrating properties of radio waves with the straight-line propagation of light. Because they exhibit unique absorption characteristics for polymers, moisture, and other substances, they are expected to be used in non-destructive testing without ionizing radiation, medical and healthcare applications, and high-resolution radar sensing. However, conventional terahertz systems require large equipment and high implementation costs, making it difficult for new companies and research institutions to enter the field or pursue commercialization.

Since the late 2000s, ROHM has engaged in joint research with the Institute of Science Tokyo, Osaka University, and many other universities and research institutions to develop THz wave oscillation and detection devices using RTDs. In 2024, ROHM began offering samples of 1st Generation products, achieving substantial downsizing and cost reduction compared with conventional methods.

To address the growing demand for improved signal quality in application development, ROHM has now developed a 2nd Generation terahertz wave oscillation device. The device maintains the same compact 0.5 × 0.5mm chip size as the 1st Generation product while adopting an internal structure that enables higher output power. As a result, output power has been increased to approximately 4 times that of the 1st Generation product, reaching a maximum of 40µW. The higher output power improves the detectability of THz waves after transmission through or reflection from target objects – making the device well suited for applications such as sensing and imaging that require high signal quality.

The device is mounted in the same 4.0 × 4.3mm PLCC package, maintaining the industry’s smallest footprint. This enables evaluation environments to be built even in space-constrained settings. In addition, compared with other THz generation methods, the RTD approach generates less heat and consumes less power. This reduces application development load at both companies and research institutions. Sales of the RTD-EVK-G2 evaluation kit, which includes samples of the 2nd Generation wave oscillation device, are scheduled to begin in August this year at $3,300 per set.

By enabling evaluation at a lower cost than other methods, the kit supports the development of a wide range of applications. This includes non-destructive testing; imaging and sensing in the medical and healthcare sectors; material identification; and moisture detection. ROHM will also continue sales of 1st Generation devices for applications that prioritize low power consumption. For further information, please contact a sales representative or visit the contact page on ROHM’s website. Purchase of the evaluation kit requires signing a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) with ROHM.

Sharing his views on the development, Professor Safumi Suzuki, Laboratory for Future Interdisciplinary Research of Science and Technology, Institute of Integrated Research, Institute of Science Tokyo, said, “Terahertz waves are expected to be applied in a wide range of fields, including non-destructive testing, imaging and sensing, and wireless communications. At the same time, commercialization continues to face major challenges, such as the need for large-scale equipment and high implementation costs. The RTD terahertz wave device, developed through many years of joint research with ROHM is compact, power saving, and does not require cooling. It can also be introduced at low cost, helping companies and research institutions begin terahertz wave research. With the launch of the 2nd Generation device featuring significantly improved oscillation output, I expect development of applications requiring higher signal quality to accelerate.”

“With the launch of RTD-EVK-G2, we expect to make another major step forward toward the practical implementation of terahertz technology. Feedback from users of the 1st Generation device revealed strong demand for higher-output devices. With this 2nd Generation product, we have succeeded in increasing oscillation output to approximately 4 times that of the 1st Generation device while maintaining a compact size, bringing us closer to meeting those needs. Terahertz technology is steadily progressing toward real-world implementation. ROHM will continue working together with customers, partners, universities, research institutions, and government agencies to support the development of terahertz wave applications and contribute to the realization of a sustainable society,” mentioned Ken Nakahara, General Manager of ROHM Research & Development Center, ROHM Co., Ltd.

Going forward, ROHM intends to continue diversifying the possibilities for THz wave application development and contribute to the early commercialization and real-world implementation of terahertz technology. This will help accelerate its deployment across a broad range of industries.

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Electric two-wheeler manufacturer Simple Energy announced it has expanded its adoption of Siemens’ cloud-based software solutions. This move supports advanced product engineering and digital transformation to scale the company’s EV portfolio. The e-mobility company intends to develop sophisticated EV variants, complex assembly and variant designs, and drive faster turnaround time.

Simple Energy expanded its Teamcenter X adoption and replaced its legacy 3D CAD solution with Designcenter X to address complex vehicle development challenges. As part of its expansion plans, it will use an expanded set of solutions from the Siemens Xcelerator portfolio, including Teamcenter X software for product lifecycle management (PLM) and Designcenter X software for advanced vehicle engineering.

The company also plans to leverage Teamcenter X advanced product configurator capabilities to manage complex vehicle variants and enterprise level bills of materials (BOMs). This integrated digital environment enables Simple Energy to improve collaboration across engineering teams while maintaining flexibility and cost efficiency.

To address increasing design and assembly complexity, Simple Energy extended its engineering environment and replaced its legacy 3D CAD capabilities with Siemens’ Designcenter X, which integrates seamlessly with Teamcenter X. The extension supports advanced surface design, large assembly performance and 3D electrical routing and harness, helping engineering teams work more efficiently as product complexity increases. Siemens’ value-based licensing model also enables Simple Energy to scale its software usage in line with business growth.

Simple Energy initially adopted Teamcenter X to establish a centralized product data management backbone and improve collaboration across engineering functions. As its electric vehicle programs matured, the company expanded its use of Siemens’ software to support enterprise BOM management and variant configuration, including a ‘150 percent BOM approach.’ By providing a master, configurable BOM that includes all possible components, options and variants for a product family, Teamcenter X helps Simple Energy configure specific 100 percent BOMs for individual customer orders, enabling efficient management of multiple vehicle variants.

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Both the scientific and relevant industrial sectors have felt the need for devices that can help understand the characteristics of smart fluids. To address this demand, scientists from IIT Patna prepared Nano iron powder-based MR fluids and developed a hybrid magneto-rheometer. This device can trace the rheological (flow and deformation) and tribological behaviour (friction and wear) of the MR fluid in the non-conventional compression and shear mode both with and without a magnetic field, using the custom-designed rheometer.

The newly designed innovative hybrid magneto-rheometer offers a novel way to characterize the performance of smart fluids that are useful for medicine, aerospace, the defense sector and automation. These fluids increase in viscosity when subjected to a magnetic field. MR fluids are “smart” materials that rapidly change their mechanical properties when exposed to a magnetic field, increasing in apparent viscosity, to the point of becoming a viscoelastic solid.  The fluid can transmit force which can be controlled with an electromagnet, giving rise to many possible control-based applications.

​​This unique capability makes them ideal for adaptive technologies such as brakes, clutches, shock absorbers, vibration control systems, dampers, actuators, and medical devices. The increasing need to accurately understand how these fluids behave under actual operating conditions has remained a significant challenge. Particularly, the compression plus shear mode is the least understood of the MR fluid’s operation modes, limiting the potential of its practical applications.

This initiative is led by Prof Chiranjit Sarkar, with support from the Nano and Advanced Materials division of the Department of Science and Technology (DST). The team fabricated a rheometer that can measure both the rheological and tribological properties of an MR fluid under compression and shear modes of operation at different normal loads, both with and without a magnetic field.

In the hybrid rheometer, the scientists generated a constant, high-magnitude magnetic field throughout the MR sample region using a smaller current. They conducted experiments in compression plus shear mode (mixed mode) for iron-based MR fluid. This development demonstrates how advances in testing technology can drive innovation in smart materials, providing researchers and industry with the tools needed to engineer high-performance MR fluids for future generations of adaptive and energy-efficient technologies.

The comprehensive testing capability of the prototype they developed provided a better understanding​ MR fluid performance than conventional characterization methods. Such hybrid Rheometers can help understand the viscoelastic properties of materials that are indispensable in sectors such as polymers, pharmaceuticals, food processing, cosmetics, and petrochemicals.

The post New Hybrid Magneto Rheometer Advances Nano Smart Fluid Technologies appeared first on ELE Times.

Picture a satellite holding its course high above Earth, its mission dependent on flawless orientation, or an electric vehicle with a high-voltage battery that demands exact current monitoring to safeguard performance and safety. In these moments, precision is not a luxury—it is mission-critical.

Conventional magnets and commodity sensors falter under the weight of noise, drift, and limited sensitivity. The fluxgate sensor changes that equation, harnessing magnetic saturation to deliver scientific-grade accuracy and bridging the gap between everyday detection and the uncompromising demands of advanced engineering.

Fluxgate: Saturation as the gatekeeper

At the core of a fluxgate sensor lies a high-permeability ferromagnetic material that acts as a magnetic modulator. Driven by an alternating current, the core is periodically pushed into saturation—a state where its ability to conduct magnetic flux collapses. This creates a “magnetic gate”: when unsaturated, the core concentrates the external magnetic field into the sense coil; once saturated, its permeability drops, effectively closing the gate to that field.

This controlled gating modulates the external flux, inducing a voltage in the sense coil. In a perfectly balanced, zero-field condition, the drive signal produces only odd harmonics. The presence of an external field breaks that symmetry, introducing even harmonics, most notably the second harmonic, which provides a precise, linear measure of the field’s strength. By exploiting the non-linear transition into saturation, fluxgate sensors achieve sensitivity and stability far beyond ordinary inductive detection.

Fluxgate anatomy: Core, drive, and sense

A fluxgate sensor is built around three essential elements working in concert. At its heart is the magnetic core, typically a ring or rod made from high-permeability alloys such as Permalloy or Mu-metal, where hysteresis and saturation take place. Wrapped around this core is the drive coil, the “motor” that pushes the material into saturation by applying an alternating current.

Completing the system is the sense coil, the “ear” that listens for changes in magnetic flux and captures the second harmonic signal produced when the external field interacts with the saturated core. Together, these components transform invisible magnetic influences into precise, measurable data.

Figure 1 A fluxgate sensor employs a ferromagnetic core, drives it periodically into magnetic saturation via a drive winding, and captures the modulated magnetic flux with a sense winding. Source: Author

Note at this point that while standard open-loop fluxgates typically rely solely on drive and sense windings, closed-loop configurations introduce a feedback winding to enhance precision.

Interestingly, some advanced designs consolidate these roles, utilizing a single winding for both sensing and feedback. By employing time-multiplexing—rapidly switching between sensing the field and applying a compensation current—or using frequency filtering to isolate the signals, engineers can achieve closed-loop performance without a physically distinct third coil. Even in these integrated designs, the fundamental function of feedback remains the key to the sensor’s accuracy and long-term stability.

Ring-core revolution: How Goubau redefined fluxgate

The Goubau-type fluxgate sensor, developed by Rudolf Aschenbrenner and Georg Goubau in the mid-1930s, represents a pivotal milestone in the evolution of magnetic field measurement. Moving beyond earlier parallel-rod designs, they pioneered the ring-core architecture, which utilized a closed-loop magnetic path to achieve a remarkable resolution of 0.3 nT, a precision that was revolutionary for its time.

By driving the core into periodic saturation via an excitation current, the sensor “gates” external magnetic flux to induce a voltage proportional to the ambient field, specifically isolating the second harmonic frequency. This robust, self-shielding design effectively minimized magnetic noise and established the fundamental blueprint for modern high-precision magnetometry, eventually enabling the transition from land-based geophysical observatories to the sophisticated, solid-state sensors deployed in contemporary space exploration missions.

Why use fluxgate sensors

Fluxgate sensors distinguish themselves through a blend of sensitivity, stability, and versatility that makes them indispensable in demanding applications. Their high sensitivity allows them to detect magnetic fields thousands of times weaker than Earth’s, opening the door to ultra-fine measurements in geophysics and aerospace. They exhibit exceptionally low drift, delivering long-term stability that outperforms Hall-effect sensors and ensures accuracy over extended periods.

Equally important, they operate effectively with both DC and low-frequency AC fields, giving engineers a versatile tool that adapts to a wide range of measurement scenarios. Yet these high-performance capabilities come with trade-offs: fluxgate sensors are generally larger, more complex, and consume more power than compact, chip-based alternatives such as Hall-effect or magnetoresistive sensors. As a result, they are best suited for precision-critical environments where data integrity outweighs the need for extreme miniaturization.

Getting to modern integration, digital fluxgate sensors address the traditional limitations of size and complexity by combining the sensing core with on-board electronics for signal processing, compensation, and calibration. By digitizing the harmonic output directly at the sensor, they reduce noise, simplify interfacing, and improve long-run stability.

These integrated designs make fluxgates more practical for embedded systems and field instruments, ensuring the technology remains relevant even as compact alternatives such as Hall-effect and magnetoresistive sensors dominate consumer applications.

Figure 2 This 1-axis fluxgate magnetometer delivers linearized, temperature-compensated magnetic field data directly in nanotesla (nT) for precise and stable measurements. Source: FG Sensors

From principles to applications

Building on these principles and modern integrations, fluxgate technology finds compelling expression in real-world applications. Whether guiding a compass to resolve Earth’s faint magnetic field, stabilizing aircraft heading systems, or measuring current with precision in power electronics, the same saturation-based gating mechanism underpins each use case. By translating subtle magnetic influences into stable, linear signals, fluxgates bridge the gap between theory and practice, proving their worth wherever accuracy and reliability are paramount.

Fluxgate compass

Among the earliest and most enduring applications of fluxgate technology is the fluxgate compass. Unlike mechanical compasses that rely on a freely moving needle, fluxgate compasses electronically resolve Earth’s magnetic field by measuring its vector components. The sensor’s saturation-based gating mechanism allows it to detect the field with remarkable precision, even when the signal is thousands of times weaker than ambient noise sources.

This electronic approach offers several advantages. Fluxgate compasses provide continuous digital output, making them easy to integrate with navigation systems in ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. They remain stable in dynamic environments where mechanical compasses falter—such as near ferrous structures, in turbulent motion, or under vibration. Their low drift ensures relatively long-time accuracy, which is critical for heading reference systems and autopilot integration.

However, these benefits come with trade-offs. Fluxgate compasses are more complex and consume more power than simple magnetometers, and their size can be a limiting factor in portable consumer devices. As a result, they are best suited for mission-critical navigation where reliability and precision outweigh the need for extreme miniaturization.

Figure 3. An electromagnetic fluxgate compass measures the Earth’s magnetic field directly to provide heading data, serving as a reliable alternative or backup to the primary gyro system. Source: Marine Data Systems

Current sensing

Fluxgate sensors also play a critical role in precision current measurement. When a conductor carries current, it generates a magnetic field proportional to the flow. By placing a fluxgate sensor around or near the conductor, this field can be resolved with exceptional accuracy, enabling non-intrusive current sensing.

The saturation-based gating principle ensures linearity across a wide dynamic range, making fluxgates particularly valuable in high-power systems where both small leakage currents and large load currents must be monitored reliably.

The advantages are clear: fluxgate current sensors offer DC capability, unlike many transformer-based solutions that only respond to AC. They also deliver low drift and high stability over extended periods, which is essential for monitoring in power electronics, grid systems, and aerospace applications. Their ability to detect minute variations makes them suitable for fault detection, efficiency optimization, and protective relaying.

As with other fluxgate applications, trade-offs exist. These sensors are larger and more complex than compact Hall-effect devices, and their higher power consumption can be a limiting factor in portable or consumer contexts. Yet in mission-critical environments—such as aircraft power distribution, renewable energy systems, or precision laboratory instrumentation—their accuracy and reliability outweigh these constraints, making fluxgate current sensing a trusted solution.

Figure 4 This fluxgate closed-loop current sensor measures DC, AC, pulse, and irregular waveform currents while providing galvanic isolation. Source: Chen Yang Technologies

As a quick aside, you think of DRV421 from TI. It’s a great pick for magnetic closed-loop current sensing because it handles both AC and DC with robust isolation. What makes it stand out is that it packs a proprietary fluxgate sensor and signal conditioning into one chip, keeping your part count low. Because the fluxgate has such low offset drift, the overall measurement precision is hard to beat.

Heading and attitude reference systems

Fluxgate sensors also underpin heading and attitude reference systems, where precise orientation data is vital for navigation and control. By resolving the vector components of Earth’s magnetic field, fluxgates provide a stable magnetic heading that can be fused with gyroscopes and accelerometers to deliver complete attitude information. This integration is especially important in aircraft and spacecraft, where reliable orientation must be maintained despite vibration, acceleration, and environmental disturbances.

The strength of fluxgates in this role lies in their ability to deliver accurate, drift-resistant magnetic references. Unlike mechanical compasses, they remain unaffected by motion dynamics, and unlike gyroscopes, they do not accumulate error over time. When combined in modern inertial navigation systems, fluxgates serve as the magnetic anchor that ensures long-term stability and confidence in heading data.

As with other applications, trade-offs exist. Fluxgate-based reference systems are more complex and power-hungry than compact magnetometers, and they require careful calibration to mitigate local magnetic interference.

Yet in mission-critical aviation, marine, and space contexts, their precision and reliability make them indispensable, ensuring that orientation data remains trustworthy under demanding conditions. As an aside, you may look at the systems called HARS or AHRS; regardless of the acronym, the fluxgate remains the indispensable ‘magnetic North’ for the entire sensor suite.

Future directions

While fluxgate sensors have long been valued for their precision and stability, ongoing research continues to push the technology forward, and this is where enthusiasts, makers, hobbyists, and engineers can play a role. Here, miniaturization efforts aim to reduce size and power consumption, making fluxgates more competitive with compact magnetoresistive and Hall-effect devices.

Hybrid designs that combine fluxgate cores with MEMS or digital compensation circuits promise improved performance in embedded systems. At the same time, advances in materials and signal processing are extending sensitivity into new ranges, opening opportunities in geophysics, defense, and renewable energy monitoring.

For those eager to experiment, prototyping with modules, integrating fluxgates into navigation projects, or blending them with modern microcontrollers offers a chance to push boundaries and contribute to the next wave of innovation.

As sensor ecosystems evolve, fluxgates are likely to remain the choice for applications where accuracy, drift resistance, and DC capability are non-negotiable. Their integration into modern electronics ensures that, even as alternatives dominate consumer markets, fluxgates continue to serve as the trusted backbone of high-reliability instrumentation.

Fluxgates remind us that precision isn’t just measured; it’s built, tested, and carried forward by those who dare to innovate.

T. K. Hareendran is a self-taught electronics enthusiast with a strong passion for innovative circuit design and hands-on technology. He develops both experimental and practical electronic projects, documenting and sharing his work to support fellow tinkerers and learners. Beyond the workbench, he dedicates time to technical writing and hardware evaluations to contribute meaningfully to the maker community.

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The post Fluxgate basics: How magnetic saturation changes everything appeared first on EDN.

As the automotive industry continues to shift toward software-defined vehicles (SDVs), autonomous driving, and connected vehicles, it raises challenges around performance, reliability, and security. Component makers have a big role to play by delivering next-generation designs that support the transition to these new automotive architectures.

The July/August issue takes a look at advances happening at the component level that are enabling next-generation automotive technologies. These range from zonal microcontrollers (MCUs) and gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC) power devices to connectors and LEDs/LED drivers. We also look at safety and security challenges in SDVs.

As vehicle electrical/electronic architectures evolve and the automotive industry transitions to SDVs, it raises new technical challenges for automakers. In particular, the move from domain-based to zonal architectures that group vehicle functions presents challenges, as each zone controller needs to handle a wide range of tasks. This means the ECUs in a zonal design require compute capabilities that can handle both time-sensitive and compute-intensive workloads concurrently.

“In a zonal architecture, each zone of a vehicle, such as front, rear, or cabin, has a high-performance controller managing local devices and communicating with other controllers over high-speed networks,” said Paul S. Lee, senior director, automotive microcontrollers, zonal segment leader, at NXP Semiconductors.

Although this approach is faster to update, easier to scale, less complex, and even cheaper, it also presents new technical challenges for automakers, Lee said. He discusses key challenges in the move to SDVs and how zonal MCUs are building the foundation for the next generation of SDVs.

Another big challenge in SDVs is the cybersecurity threat. Rambus is calling for a collaborative effort among engineers, security teams, and end users to create a secure SDV ecosystem.

“SDVs continuously evolve through over-the-air updates, unlocking new features, optimizing performance, and enhancing safety over time,” said Paul Karazuba, VP of product marketing for silicon IP at Rambus. “While this shift continues to enable greater connectivity, automation, and personalization, it also expands the cybersecurity threat landscape,” and as “SDVs integrate with cloud systems, mobile apps, and AI-driven features, they become more vulnerable to cyberattacks.”

Karazuba discusses this expanding cybersecurity threat landscape and how to ensure security frameworks that enable SDV features while protecting user safety and data privacy. “Security must be integrated from the ground up, beginning at the chip and silicon IP level to prevent hardware-based exploits.”

Advances in autonomous vehicles (AVs) and advanced driver-assistance systems are also driving the need for improvements, particularly in radar, LiDAR, and cameras for safer systems. Innovations in these technologies, powered by sensor fusion, are enabling vehicles to understand their environments in real time.

Contributing writer Stefano Lovati explores how perception and sensor fusion are driving evolution and innovations in the three main categories of automotive sensors: radar, LiDAR, and cameras. Lovati said that while every sensor type has its own limitations, sensor fusion “bridges this gap by intelligently combining data from sensors using advanced algorithms.”

Bitsensing tells us that 4D imaging radar is critical to AV commercialization and safe autonomous driving. The latest radar systems work at ranges of more than 200 meters, have low power consumption, and can easily be integrated into vehicle systems, with manufacturers already building systems designed specifically for the commercial AV market, said Jae-Eun Lee, CEO of bitsensing Inc.

However, Lee explained that many 4D radars are developed for ADAS rather than being built for full driverless functionality.

4D radar is important for the rapid commercialization of AV technology because it enables the rapid classification of different kinds of road users, but “to really drive the commercial AV market forward, it’s also vital that sensors are purposely designed for full autonomy, rather than being repurposed from devices for the consumer market,” he said.

Also reshaping automotive electronics are GaN and SiC power devices. These devices are being increasingly adopted into vehicles thanks to their faster switching and higher efficiency.

Lovati reports that GaN and SiC are no longer considered exotic semiconductors, and the automotive industry is leveraging their capabilities to switch faster, tolerate higher blocking voltages and temperatures, and dissipate less energy than conventional silicon.

He examines the current state and next steps for both SiC and GaN technologies across key automotive areas, including traction inverters, on-board chargers, DC/DC converters, and auxiliary power systems.

Don’t miss the connector and cable product roundup, looking at the latest rugged and flexible interconnects for high-reliability applications, including automotive, industrial, and military/aerospace. These connectors deliver miniaturization, reliable performance, and easier integration.

We also look at some of the latest innovations in automotive LEDs and LED drivers. Many of the latest LED developments focus on delivering smaller form factors for space-constrained and sleeker designs, improved thermal performance, and flexible color control. LED driver manufacturers also deliver simpler designs for easier integration and space savings, as well as advancements in areas such as packaging and heat dissipation.

The post Next-gen components power safer, smarter vehicles appeared first on EDN.

The premise that a supposed-clone rechargeable battery is more economical than its “branded” counterpart is all well and good…unless you’re unable to actually recharge it.

As my accretion of previously-owned photography equipment continues unabated, so too grows the pile of batteries for powering them. Many of the cells are camera manufacturer-branded, but in a few situations, what’s arrived post-purchase are third-party “clones”, with the quotes referencing the hit-or-miss reality in achieving the suppliers’ desired exact-duplicate aspirations.

Recently added to my gear inventory, for example, is an OM-1 (the newer digital version, not its same-named film-based classic precursor) from Olympus (now OM System).

It showed with a third-party BLX-1 battery (7.2 V, 2280 mAh) inside it. Olympus’ BCX-1 charger unsurprisingly had no issue with the official BLX-1 cell.

Unfortunately, however, it balked at accepting the third-party mimicker.

Typically, this outcome results from a failed upfront interrogation of the battery by the charger (or camera, for that matter), done over an identification, status, or functionally equivalent bus. While cloning a simple manufacturer-and-device ID code combination stored in nonvolatile memory is rather straightforward, impersonating more complex hardware such as the entire embedded battery management system (BMS) is a more challenging endeavor.

I also wasn’t up for the common “solution” to this situation—the third-party battery supplier encouraging the user to buy its own charger—even if it were feasible. Since this battery is supplier-unbranded, I wouldn’t know where to even start looking for a copacetic charger companion. So, it went under the internal-analysis knife for my and readers’ shared educational benefit.

Here are some overview shots of the third-party BLX-1, as usual accompanied by a 0.75′′ (19.1 mm) diameter U.S. penny for size comparison purposes. Top:

Bottom:

Note the four sequential contacts marked “+”, “T”, “I” and “-“.

Published specifications for batteries like the one I’m looking at today are hard-to-impossible to come by, given that the camera manufacturer understandably doesn’t want to encourage cloning for economics (“branded” batteries are more expensive, therefore highly profitable to the supplier) and broader camera and brand damage-avoidance reasons. That said, the functions of “+” and “-“ are, unsurprisingly, related to the voltage and current involved in the fundamental cell-charging and -discharging functions, the latter for camera-powering purposes.

“T” typically references “temperature”, with the contact connected to an integrated negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor or other sensor to monitor the internal cell(s) and alert the charger to potential overheat conditions. And “I”, perhaps short for “information” or “identification”, references the earlier-noted interrogation initially done by both charger and camera after battery insertion and power-on, and ongoing from that point on, presumably implemented by a bidirectional single-data-pin serial communications protocol of some sort.

Onward, with the comparatively bland other end, followed by the left and right sides.

Now to get inside. You’ve likely already noticed the tempting seam running along the entire circumference, dividing the battery roughly into two halves. Its ultrasonic welded foundation meant that simple heat application wouldn’t suffice to get them apart…not that I’d want to do that anyway, given the just-alluded-to battery chemistry overheating side effects.

I also didn’t know how (if at all, vs. elementary “pouch” structures) the cell(s) inside were encased, giving me pause when it came to contemplating alternatively cutting into the seam. And construction aside, I also didn’t want to inadvertently short out a cell via a misplaced blade. Yikes!

I eventually settled on a methodology involving my hobbyist vise and the meticulous back-and-forth use of my hacksaw blade (versus my also-considered Dremel tool’s cutting wheel…heat concerns again, though…), which thankfully worked like a charm with no “exciting” side effects.

The two serial-connected 3.7V Li-ion cells were cylindrical in form factor and unmemorable.

Note that I straightaway severed the metal straps connecting them both to the PCB and to each other, in a nod to my earlier mentioned short-circuit outcome concerns.

I’d wager, however, that the mini-PCB, with contacts on one side and componentry on the other, was always of greater interest to all of you (as it certainly was to me).

Flip it over, remove the obscuring rubberized strips that normally provide the mini-PCB with both shock-absorptive and electrically insulative isolation from the cells’ terminals.

And the electronics “guts” come into full view.

The eight-lead IC U1 at far left is labeled:

8205A
Q121M1

It appears to be a dual N-channel MOSFET, a common element of elementary lithium battery protection circuits. The six-lead IC U2, seen directly to its right, is labeled:

20DBUE

Reader insights are welcomed on this one; Google was of no help! Although I can’t help but wonder, revisiting the earlier-referenced schematic, if it’s a rudimentary battery-protection IC?

Skipping past a mess of passives, the next notable chip is a 20-lead IC whose topside markings were unfortunately buffed out…that is, if they ever existed in the first place! I presume it’s the battery charge controller; make and model unknown, alas. That said, as a conceptual example, I’ll point you toward Texas Instruments’ bq2400x series, multiple of which support dual-cell assemblies (for which balancing will be necessary) and come in various 20-contact packages.

At far right is another enigma, this one six-lead and PCB-notated as U4 (or at least I think that’s what it says; the inconveniently located through-hole vias at the top don’t help). Character(s) at far left on the topside stamp represent(s), I’m guessing, an unfamiliar-to-me company logo that my limited available keyboard options won’t allow me to represent. The last four, ironically, are:

U4UH

I presume the commonality of the first two with the PCB mark is nothing more than a mere coincidence. IC identity suggestions, readers?

And with memories of recent-past short-circuited, overheating batteries still fresh in my mind.

And knowing that the battery’s guts would be sitting in my office for several more weeks prior to publication of my teardown writeup, I concluded this portion of the project by amply wrapping both cells in insulating masking tape prior to moving on.

I’ve got two more batteries still sitting in the teardown queue, but as this initial segment went longer than initially anticipated (then again, what else is new, right?) I’ve decided to save them for part 2 in this now-series, scheduled for publication next week. Until them, I welcome your feedback in the comments on what I’ve covered so far!

—Brian Dipert is the associate editor, as well as a contributing editor, at EDN.

Related Content

• Engineering tradeoffs: a camera case study
• NOCO’s Genius 1: A trickle charger that tries harder
• Single-battery failures in multi-battery arrangements: diagnosing selective cell derangements
• Not smart, but solar: Analyzing another thermo-plus-hygrometer

The post Dissecting third-party camera batteries, part 1: Functional misbehavior appeared first on EDN.

​Given the growth in Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Autonomous Drive (AD), highly accurate motion sensing has become more important to vehicles than it’s ever been. Today’s car utilizes an array of cameras, LiDAR, radars, and inertial sensors to estimate the car’s orientation and location and enable real-time decisions for navigating without human assistance.

A central challenge, however, still exists, and that is to maintain accurate location tracking and motion estimation when experiencing loss of GNSS, operating in tunnels or harsh weather conditions, or when individual sensors suffer interference or occultation. To solve this challenge, Murata Manufacturing Co., Ltd. developed a high-accuracy 6 Degrees of Freedom (6DoF) IMU, tailored for direct mounting inside the AD or ADAS ECU.

The new IMU contains a high-accuracy three-axis accelerometer and three-axis gyroscope packaged in a small format suitable for in-vehicle operation, which allows it to precisely measure vehicular accelerations, angular velocities, and motions. Incorporating six motion axes within this IMU unit provides a self-contained source of real-time vehicular dynamics data that ADAS and autonomy ECUs can use directly.

Traditional motion sensors can be difficult to integrate with the ECU in other cars as there’s a certain level of pre-configuration required, or external processing must take place. Because it is designed for ECU incorporation, Murata’s newest IMU allows for fewer parts in vehicle electronics design, fewer design development challenges, and allows OEMs to bring enhanced driver assistance features to market faster.

This release reflects the broader shift across the automotive industry toward software-defined vehicles (SDVs), using high performance computing and central domain controller hardware instead of a proliferation of distributed ECUs. In the context of such architectures, high-fidelity inertial sensing​g becomes a critical component of vehicle perception, localization, and control loops, a demand which will intensify further as automotive automation deepens.

The post Murata Launches High-Performance 6DoF IMU for Direct AD/ADAS ECU Integration appeared first on ELE Times.

​As China’s increased presence in the Indian Ocean and upgrades to regional submarine forces transform the global maritime security environment, India is moving urgently to reinforce underwater warfare, following a trajectory similar to the United States. While China’s Indian Ocean presence-and by extension, the world-class status of submarines deployed by regional navies-is transforming the waterscape of the world’s second most populous continent, India has accelerated plans to finalise one of its historically largest defence procurements: a nearly Rs 90,000-crore Project-75(I) deal with Germany for new submarines, aimed at reinforcing the nation’s submarine fleet at all costs and strengthening its burgeoning indigenous industry.

According to German Ambassador to India Philipp Ackermann, Germany and India are looking to sign an agreement next month. Project-75(I) program, which involves the development of the six conventional futuristic generation submarines for the Indian Navy through an India–German collaboration between MDL and TKMS, will amount to over Rs 90,000 crores, nearly eight billion​ dollars. The submarines will be developed based on the Strategic Partnership model in India.

The Project-75(I) is seen as one of the most critical naval modernisation projects undertaken by India. The submarines are envisioned to be built based on German-designed Type-214 submarines with futuristic features, including an advanced Stealth design, state-of-the-art Combat management systems, longer operating range, and Air- Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology. While a normal diesel-electric submarine needs to resurface regularly to charge the batteries, the equipped AIP allows the submarines to stay underwater longer, thus evading reconnaissance in deep waters, especially during the combat role.

The post India Nears Rs 90,000-Cr Project-75(I) Deal with Germany for Next-gen Stealth Submarines appeared first on ELE Times.

Ather Energy CEO and Co-founder Tarun Mehta has confirmed that the company will launch its first mass-market electric scooter, built on its all-new EL platform, at Ather Community Day on 29 August in Bengaluru.

Sharing the announcement on X, Mehta said the new scooter is the culmination of years of investment in the core technologies and architectures that define a great electric scooter.

“We have been patiently investing in the building blocks of what makes a good scooter for years now,” Mehta wrote. “A decade in, EV two-wheelers are ready to now move beyond the early adopter stage. The tech is ready for everybody, the features are becoming relevant for all. Not early adopters, but truly mainstream.”

According to Mehta, this transition marks a new phase for the electric two-wheeler industry, where EVs need to deliver across every dimension that matters to mainstream customers. He highlighted expectations ranging from strong resale value and faster servicing to ride comfort on challenging roads, seamless charging experiences, visible safety features, and software driven intelligence that enhances everyday ownership.

The upcoming scooter will be the first production model built on Ather’s EL platform, the company’s next-generation scooter architecture unveiled at Ather Community Day 2025. Designed to underpin a new family of products, the platform represents Ather’s next phase of innovation and growth as it expands into a more accessible segment of the electric scooter market.

The launch is expected to mark an important milestone for Ather as it broadens its portfolio beyond the 450 and Rizta range and positions itself for the next wave of EV adoption in India.

The post Ather Energy CEO Tarun Mehta Confirms Launch of First Mass-Market Scooter Built on New EL Platform appeared first on ELE Times.