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I was trying to identify some IC's recently and found out that ChatGPT is incredibly good at identifying IC parts from their markings with some extra context information. It can require some prodding and trial and error and giving it some hints helps e.g. a description about what you think it does, component footprint, visible marking, the device you found it on. and force it to list number of alternatives. You can also give it a picture and let it find the layout context. Example I was trying to identify the component marked: KP05 5MES. I gave it the picture and the prompt: "" Help me find this component: The packaging has these markings: KP05 5MES It has aSOIC-8 package It is a high speed component that operates in the GHz range. Found on the front end of a GigaWave 6400 Give me a list of possible alternatives. "" One of the suggested components is the MC10EP05 and I could then verify it by looking at the datasheet That's pretty cool submitted by /u/TileSeeker [link] [comments]

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🕔 Дайджест актуальних подій та конкурсів від Відділу академічної мобільності kpi пт, 02/20/2026 - 22:30

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1206 resistor for scale, and it works! This is a led driver TPS92201a, those legs are now antennas. submitted by /u/General_Action_3685 [link] [comments]

Rohde & Schwarz will present its advanced test and measurement solutions for the embedded industry at embedded world Exhibition & Conference in Nuremberg, Germany. Visitors can find the T&M expert at booth 4-218 in hall 4 of the Nuremberg Exhibition Centre from March 10 to 12, 2026. There, they can delve into the company’s innovations designed to help engineers enhance device energy efficiency, expedite EMC compliance within the design process, speed up digital protocols debugging, and meet required regulatory standards for wireless interfaces.

Next generation oscilloscopes

At Embedded World, Rohde & Schwarz will showcase its ever-growing range of next-generation oscilloscopes, from MXO 3 to MXO 5, all powered by the same next-generation MXO-EP ASIC technology from Rohde & Schwarz, originally introduced with the MXO 4 in 2022. The latest addition, the compact MXO 3, comes with up to eight channels and offers a combination of features that rival higher-class oscilloscopes, such as a real-time capture rate of up to 99% and hardware-accelerated functionality on math, spectrum and zone trigger.

Ensuring reliability in power electronics

Combined with high voltage, current and optically isolated probes (R&S RT-ZISO), the eight-channel models of MXO 3 and MXO 5 extend their capabilities to power electronics applications. For power conversion, the instruments’ eight channels and 18-bit HD mode provide critical visibility into complex systems like motor drives and inverters, enabling precise measurements for efficiency and optimisation. Furthermore, they simplify power sequencing analysis with simultaneous multi-channel observation and deep memory of up to 500 Mpts, enabling longer recording durations and precise analysis of small signal events. Additionally, their fast spectrum analysis capability makes them excellent tools for quickly identifying EMI issues and noise sources.

EMI testing for embedded systems

Every electronic product and component is likely to emit conducted or radiated electromagnetic emissions. Especially for densely packed embedded systems, early debugging helps to isolate and correct EMI issues and accelerates time-to-market. As a leader in EMC testing, Rohde & Schwarz will present solutions that integrate EMI testing into the product design process. Visitors can learn how to use the R&S EPL1007 EMI test receiver in fast, accurate and reliable EMI pre-compliance and compliance measurements up to a frequency range of 7.125 GHz. The instrument offers device developers and conformance test houses the flexibility to upgrade with evolving needs – from preselection, including a preamplifier, up to a full CISPR 16-1-1 compliant test receiver.

Verifying signal integrity of digital designs

All hardware elements on a board layout are potential causes of signal degradation. To test the signal integrity on a PCB, Rohde & Schwarz will showcase its R&S ZNB3000 vector network analyser at embedded world, covering up to 40 GHz. This VNA, part of the new midrange family offering instruments with a maximum frequency range of up to 54 GHz, has redefined the standard for speed, precision and versatility with its industry-leading dynamic range, fast measurement speed, and scalable upgrades, perfectly suited for signal integrity applications. Visitors can experience the instrument’s advanced de-embedding techniques, which facilitate characterising the test fixture, extracting the S-parameters and de-embedding the test fixture in a user-friendly manner, with the signal quality visualised by a simulated eye diagram.

Testing of high-speed interfaces

High-speed digital interfaces are integral to electronic designs, with increasing data rates and integration density posing new challenges at the IC, board and system level. Trade show visitors will learn at the Rohde & Schwarz booth about powerful signal integrity test tools for system verification, debugging, and compliance testing for different high-speed busses. Rohde & Schwarz will showcase, for example, 1GBASE-T Ethernet compliance testing using the R&S RTO6 oscilloscope and related equipment to ensure that a 1 Gigabit Ethernet (1GbE) physical layer (PHY) transceiver meets the specifications outlined in the IEEE 802.3 standard. In a different setup, Rohde & Schwarz will showcase its R&S RTP164B oscilloscope for signal integrity testing on a multitude of standards, including DDR5 and USB3.2.

When it comes to automotive interfaces, the emerging standards, including Automotive Ethernet, OpenGMSL or ASA (Automotive SerDes Alliance), bring new challenges for design. Rohde & Schwarz already supports all of these new standards and will showcase comprehensive validation using the R&S RTP164B oscilloscope, featuring signal integrity debugging and automated compliance on ASA, as well as protocol decoding of 10Base-T1S to ensure robust and reliable link performance.

Battery life testing

Battery life is critical for battery-powered devices. Rohde & Schwarz will demonstrate in real time how the features of smart devices affect their power consumption. The setup is based on the R&S NGU source measure unit emulating a battery. The integrated analysis tool captures and visualises current across sleep-to-active transitions. In another application on battery testing with the R&S NGM202, cells will be charged and discharged to characterise battery behaviour and build accurate battery models.

Wireless connectivity testing

Embedded systems increasingly incorporate wireless connectivity as a core function. Thorough testing is essential to ensure reliable performance, interoperability and compliance with industry standards. The complexity of these standards requires specialised test equipment and expertise. The CMP180 radio communication tester from Rohde & Schwarz contains two analysers, two generators and two sets of eight RF ports in a single box and supports many cellular and non-cellular technologies across R&D, pre‑conformance and mass production. At embedded world, visitors will experience the CMP180 testing both Bluetooth LE and Wi-Fi 8 devices.

The platform already supports physical layer testing for the new Bluetooth LE Channel Sounding and new Bluetooth LE High Data Throughput (HDT) feature, a cornerstone for the next generation of Bluetooth Low Energy (LE), offering increased capacity, better energy efficiency, improved spectrum efficiency and enhanced reliability. Wi-Fi 8, based on the IEEE 802.11bn standard, sets new expectations for consistent, ultra-high-reliability and quality connectivity. Designed to support a growing number of connected devices and demanding applications like XR and industrial IoT, the CMP180 helps engineers navigate the technical complexities of 802.11bn throughout the entire device lifecycle in non-signalling mode with its advanced capabilities and broad bandwidth support.

Efficient production lines with tailored solutions
For production tests at component, module and system level, Rohde & Schwarz will showcase a rack-mounted test and measurement configuration, featuring the rack-optimised MXO 5C oscilloscopes and the PVT360A performance vector tester. This setup will demonstrate how tailored Rohde & Schwarz test solutions contribute to a production environment built for reliable validation, streamlined workflows and maximised throughput.

These and other test solutions for the embedded industry can be found at the Rohde & Schwarz booth 4-218 in hall 4 at the Embedded World Exhibition & Conference from March 10 to 12, 2026, in Nuremberg, Germany.

The post R&S showcases its comprehensive embedded systems test solutions at embedded world 2026 appeared first on ELE Times.

День Героїв Небесної Сотні kpi пт, 02/20/2026 - 11:20

In this post, we will take a gentle dive into logarithmic amplifiers—commonly known as log amps—those quietly powerful circuits that work behind the scenes to decode exponential signals and tame wide dynamic ranges.

Log amps: Basics and building blocks

To set the stage, a logarithmic amplifier is an electronic circuit that produces an output voltage proportional to the logarithm of its input signal, whether voltage or current. By using the exponential electrical behavior of semiconductor junctions—typically diodes or bipolar junction transistors—log amps offer an elegant way to compress signals that span a wide dynamic range, such as those from photodiodes, radio frequency detectors, or audio sensors, into a more manageable scale.

Coming to log amp architecture, these specialized circuits produce an output voltage proportional to the logarithm of the input signal amplitude. There are three fundamental architectures commonly employed to realize log amps: the basic diode log amp, the successive detection log amp, and the true log amp, which is implemented using cascaded semi-limiting amplifiers.

In the simplest form, the diode log amp exploits the exponential current–voltage relationship of a silicon diode. Since the voltage across a diode is proportional to the logarithm of the current flowing through it, placing the diode in the feedback path of an inverting operational amplifier allows the circuit to generate an output voltage proportional to the logarithm of the input current.

Figure 1 Circuit diagram illustrates the basic setup of an op-amp-based logarithmic amplifier with a diode. Source: Author

However, this basic configuration suffers from limited dynamic range and strong temperature dependence. These issues are commonly addressed by using diode-connected transistors (see figure below) or matched transistor pairs with temperature-compensation techniques, which extend the usable range and stabilize the logarithmic response.

Figure 2 Circuit diagram depicts the basic setup of an op-amp-based logarithmic amplifier with a diode-connected transistor. Source: Author

Here, note that the base of the transistor is grounded, effectively matching the virtual ground at the op-amp’s inverting input.

Successive detection log amps improve performance by using a chain of detectors that progressively measure signal levels, providing better accuracy and wider dynamic range.

True log amps, on the other hand, employ cascaded semi-limiting amplifiers to approximate the logarithmic response more faithfully across a broad frequency spectrum, making them particularly useful in RF and instrumentation applications.

Beyond their circuit topologies, log amps are distinguished by performance factors such as dynamic range, accuracy, bandwidth, and temperature stability. Simple diode-based designs are attractive for their ease of implementation, but they quickly run into limits of precision and thermal drift.

Integrated log amp ICs and true log architectures, by contrast, deliver superior linearity, wider operating ranges, and better stability across frequency and temperature. These strengths make log amps indispensable in real-world applications: compressing optical signals from photodiodes, measuring RF power levels in communication systems, shaping audio dynamics in compressors and level meters, and handling biomedical signals that span several orders of magnitude.

In each case, the ability to tame wide-ranging inputs into a manageable scale is what makes the logarithmic amplifier such a versatile tool.

When it comes to practical design, selecting the right log amp architecture depends on the signal environment and accuracy requirements. For low-frequency or moderate dynamic-range applications, a diode-connected transistor stage may suffice, if temperature compensation is included.

In RF systems, successive detection log amps are often favored for their speed and wide bandwidth, while true log amps excel when precise linearity across many decades of input is critical. Designers must also weigh trade-offs in noise performance, offset errors, and calibration complexity, as these factors directly influence measurement fidelity. Ultimately, the choice of implementation reflects a balance between simplicity, precision, and the demands of the target application.

Log amps in practice

Having explored the basics, let us now step briefly into the practical ground for a quick walk. Logarithmic amplifiers are not only found in professional instrumentation but also accessible to hobbyists and makers who enjoy experimenting with signal compression. For engineers, log amp ICs and modules provide reliable building blocks for RF measurement, optical detection, or audio dynamics.

For makers, evaluation boards and simple circuits using diode-connected transistors offer approachable ways to see logarithmic behavior firsthand without complex design overhead. While these options are not exhaustive, they illustrate how log amps move from textbook principles into real hardware, serving both the precision needs of engineers and the curiosity of hobbyists.

As a quick recall, logarithmic amplifiers can be grouped into diode-based designs that rely on the exponential I–V characteristic of diodes, transistor-based circuits that exploit the exponential base-emitter relationship in BJTs for greater precision, and multi-stage demodulating log amps that cascade gain and detector stages to achieve very wide dynamic ranges in RF and IF measurement.

Another group relates to the specialized DC/baseband-demodulating log amps that extend operation all the way down to DC, making them particularly useful for envelope detection, accurate power measurement, and wideband or baseband signal analysis.

Back to the lineup of popular log amp ICs, the trend is clear: newer designs lean heavily on high-speed, precision CMOS and BiCMOS technology, while many classic bipolar parts are being retired. The AD606 and TL441 devices now sit in the legacy category; TI lists the TL441 as active for existing designs but not recommended for fresh projects, and AD606 has largely been replaced by newer RF-focused families.

On the other hand, TI’s LOG114, LOG200, and the high-speed LOG300 remain in full production, serving demanding optical and medical sensing applications with wide dynamic range. Analog Devices also continues to back the AD8307 and AD8310 devices, which have become go-to choices for RF power measurement, thanks to their stability, accuracy, and broad availability.

Log-amp modules built around AD606 can still be found from a few niche suppliers, but they are increasingly rare and best suited for maintaining older RF projects. For newcomers or experimenters, modules based on the AD8307 and AD8310 are far more practical picks.

They are widely available, inexpensive, and offer excellent stability across frequency and temperature, making them ideal for getting your hands wet with RF power measurement, signal monitoring, or even DIY spectrum-related builds. Their straightforward interfaces and robust documentation also make them a clever starting point for hobby labs and quick prototypes.

Figure 3 Readily available modules like the AD8307 RF log detector simplify RF power measurement for engineers and hobbyists alike. Source: Author

Now recall that the classic diode/op-amp (or transistor/op-amp) log amplifier suffers from limited frequency response, particularly at low signal levels. For higher-frequency applications, designers turn instead to detector-based and true log architectures.

While these differ in detail, they share a common principle: rather than relying on a single amplifier with a logarithmic transfer characteristic, they employ a cascade of similar linear stages, each with well-defined large-signal behavior, to achieve accurate logarithmic response.

Closing line

Let me say this plainly: after experimenting with discrete log-amp circuits, the most straightforward integrated step for hobbyists is the classic DC log-amp application—measuring light intensity. Optical logging setups are easily built by placing a photodiode at the input of the log amp, and a device such as MAX4206 makes a practical choice in this case.

This post focused on logarithmic amplifiers; I have not covered antilog amplifiers here, leaving that exploration to readers who wish to dive deeper. If you have worked with log amps—or even experimented with photodiode setups—share your experiences, design tips, or favorite chips to help fellow engineers and hobbyists refine their own signal-logging projects.

T. K. Hareendran is a self-taught electronics enthusiast with a strong passion for innovative circuit design and hands-on technology. He develops both experimental and practical electronic projects, documenting and sharing his work to support fellow tinkerers and learners. Beyond the workbench, he dedicates time to technical writing and hardware evaluations to contribute meaningfully to the maker community.

Related Content

• Dining with Analog Stars
• Simple log-scale audio meter
• Log detector helps pick up the weakest signals
• Log-ratio amplifier has six-decade dynamic range
• A temperature-compensated, calibration-free anti-log amplifier

The post Logarithmic amplifiers: A quick tour of theory and practice appeared first on EDN.

A few months back I shared a board I designed here. I loved the support from the community so I will be open sourcing the design for everyone to enjoy this. Open source link - https://github.com/NoamanKhalil/Keyboard-pico submitted by /u/noamankhalil [link] [comments]

Thyratron inside a Varian EDGE (linear accelerator). submitted by /u/elodam [link] [comments]

Luminus Devices Inc of Sunnyvale, CA, USA — which designs and makes LEDs and solid-state technology (SST) light sources for illumination markets —and APC Electronics (APC-E) of Bend, OR, USA — which designs and manufactures wide-bandgap power semiconductor products — have teamed up to deliver energy-efficiency gains for the global LED lighting industry. This exclusive collaboration pairs Luminus’ high-brightness LED products with APC-E’s silicon carbide (SiC) power semiconductors, enabling customers to build system architectures that maximize luminaire power efficiency, thus reducing operational costs and environmental impact...

ST’s VNQ9050LAJ 4-channel high-side driver controls 12-V automotive ground-connected loads via a 3-V and 5-V CMOS-compatible interface. Operating from 4-V to 28-V with typical RDS(on) as low as 50 mΩ per channel, the device remains active during cold-crank events until the supply falls to the 2.7-V (max) undervoltage shutdown threshold. This performance supports compliance with LV124 (Rev. 2013) requirements for low-voltage operation and automotive transients.

Based on ST’s VIPower-M09 technology, the driver protects resistive, capacitive, and inductive loads. Integrated current sensing uses an on-chip current mirror with a sense FET that tracks the main power FET, enabling accurate load monitoring. The sensed current is available at an external pin, where a resistor converts it to a proportional voltage for continuous diagnostics and fault detection.

The VNQ9050LAJ offers robust protection and diagnostics for 12‑V automotive loads. It features integrated current sensing for overload, short-circuit, and open-load detection. The driver also includes overvoltage clamping, thermal-transient limiting, and configurable latch-off for overtemperature or power limitation, with a dedicated fault-reset pin. Additional protections—such as electrostatic discharge, loss-of-ground, loss-of-VCC, and reverse-battery—ensure reliable operation under extreme conditions.

The VNQ9050LAJ is in production in a thermally enhanced Power-SSO16 package, priced from $1.09 each for 1000-piece orders.

VNQ9050LAJ product page 

STMicroelectronics

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Empower has launched three embedded silicon capacitors (ECAPs) for AI and high-performance computing (HPC) processors. The portfolio includes the EC2005P (9.34 μF in a 2×2-mm package), EC2025P (18.68 μF in a 4×2-mm package), and EC2006P (36.8 μF in a 4×4-mm package). These components are designed for integration into processor substrates to support elevated current density and fast transient load demands.

As AI and HPC workloads increase, conventional board-mounted capacitors struggle to maintain low impedance and fast response. These ECAP devices provide high capacitance density with ultralow equivalent series inductance (ESL) and resistance (ESR), improving power delivery network (PDN) performance when embedded close to the die. Tight dimensional tolerances ensure compatibility with advanced packaging flows.

The ECAP portfolio also supports vertical power delivery architectures, including Empower’s Crescendo platform, to reduce loop inductance and system footprint. The devices provide a scalable approach for integrating silicon capacitance directly within processor packages.

The EC2005P, EC2025P, and EC2006P ECAPs are now in mass production. Learn more about the ECAP portfolio here.

Empower Semiconductor 

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Samsung has begun mass production and commercial shipments of its HBM4 DRAM, marking what it describes as an industry first. Built on Samsung’s 6th-generation 10-nm-class DRAM process with a 4-nm logic base die, this high-bandwidth memory is optimized for performance, reliability, and energy efficiency in AI, HPC, and datacenter applications.

Samsung’s HBM4 delivers a consistent transfer speed of 11.7 Gbps — roughly 46% faster than the 8-Gbps industry standard and a 1.22× improvement over the 9.6-Gbps maximum of HBM3E. Memory bandwidth per single stack reaches up to 3.3 TB/s, a 2.7× increase over HBM3E. Current 12-layer stacking enables capacities from 24 GB to 36 GB, with future 16-layer stacks projected to expand offerings up to 48 GB.

To handle the doubled data I/Os from 1024 to 2048 pins, advanced low-power techniques were applied to the core die. Samsung’s HBM4 improves power efficiency by 40% via low-voltage TSVs and optimized power distribution, offers 10% better thermal resistance, and increases heat dissipation by 30% over HBM3E, ensuring reliable high-performance operation.

For more details on this announcement, see Samsung’s press release. Explore the broader HBM portfolio here.

Samsung Semiconductor 

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The Keysight Chiplet 3D Interconnect Designer automates the design of 3D interconnects for chiplet and 3DIC advanced packages. By removing time-consuming manual steps, the tool streamlines the optimization of complex interconnect structures—including vias, transmission lines, solder balls, and micro-bumps—while ensuring signal and power integrity in densely packed systems.

Part of Keysight’s EDA portfolio, the software provides a pre-layout workflow for advanced multi-die integration, UCIe compliance, automated routing, and robust simulation capabilities. It handles complex geometries—including hatched or waffled ground planes—that are critical for addressing manufacturing and fabrication constraints, particularly in silicon interposers and bridges.

The software can operate independently or alongside Keysight’s other EDA tools, enabling teams to seamlessly incorporate 3D interconnect workflows into their existing design environments.

To learn more about the Keysight Chiplet 3D Interconnect Designer (W3510E) and request a quote, visit the product page linked below.

W3510E product page 

Keysight Technologies 

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Navitas Semiconductor has announced its 5th-generation GeneSiC platform featuring high-voltage trench-assisted planar (TAP) SiC MOSFETs, describing it as a significant advancement over previous generations. The new 1200-V MOSFET line complements Navitas’ ultra-high-voltage 2.3-kV and 3.3-kV devices based on its 4th-generation GeneSiC technology.

The latest generation incorporates the company’s most compact TAP architecture to date, combining planar-gate ruggedness with trench-enabled performance gains to improve efficiency and long-term reliability. It targets high-voltage applications including AI data centers, grid and energy infrastructure, and industrial electrification.

Compared with the prior 1200-V devices, the new generation delivers a 35% improvement in RDS(on) × QGD figure of merit, reducing switching losses and enabling cooler, higher-frequency operation. About a 25% improvement in QGD/QGS ratio, together with a stable high threshold voltage (VGS,TH ≥ 3 V), strengthens switching robustness and improves immunity to parasitic turn-on in high-noise environments.

Navitas expects to introduce products based on its 5th-generation technology in the coming months. For additional information, contact a Navitas representative or email info@navitassemi.com.

Navitas Semiconductor

The post Navitas tightens SiC losses with refined TAP appeared first on EDN.

Modern digital oscilloscopes offer a host of analysis capabilities since they digitize and store input waveforms for analysis. Most oscilloscopes offer basic math operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, ratio, and the fast Fourier transform (FFT). Mid- and high-end oscilloscopes offer advanced math functions such as differentiation and integration. These tools let you solve differential equations that you probably hated in your days as an engineering student. They are used the same way today in your oscilloscope measurements. Here are a few examples of oscilloscope measurements that require differentiation and integration.

Measuring current through a capacitor based on the voltage across it

 The current through a capacitor can be calculated from the voltage across it using this equation:

The current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change, or derivative, of the voltage across it.  The constant of proportionality is the capacitance.  A simple circuit can be used to show how this works (Figure 1).

Figure 1 A signal generator supplies a sine wave as Vin(t).  The oscilloscope measures the voltage across the capacitor. Source: Art Pini

In this simple series circuit, the current can be measured by dividing the voltage across the resistor by its value.  The oscilloscope monitors the voltage across the capacitor, Vc(t), and the voltage Vin(t). Taking the difference of these voltages yields the voltage across the resistor. The current through the resistor is calculated by rescaling the difference by multiplying by the reciprocal of the resistance. The voltage across the capacitor is acquired and differentiated. The rescale function multiplies the derivative by the capacitance to obtain the current through the capacitor (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Computing the current in the series circuit using two different measurements. Source: Art Pini

Vin(t) is the top trace in the figure; it is measured as 477.8 mV RMS by measurement parameter P1, and it has a frequency of 1 MHz. Below it is Vc(t), the voltage across the capacitor, with a value of 380.2 mV RMS, as read in parameter P2. The third trace from the top, math trace F1, is the current based on the voltage drop across the resistor, which is measured as 5.718 mA RMS in parameter P3. The bottom trace, F2, shows the capacitor current, Ic(t), at 5.762 mA.   

Parameter P6 reads the phase difference between the capacitor current and voltage traces F2 and M2, respectively. The phase is 89.79°, which is very close to the theoretically expected 90°.

Parameters P7 through P9 use parameter math to calculate the percentage difference between the currents measured by the two different measurements. It is 0.7%, which is respectable for the component tolerances used. Comparing the two current waveforms, we can see the differences (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Comparing the current waveforms from the two different measurement processes. Source: Art Pini

The two current measurement processes are very similar.  Differentiating the capacitor voltage is somewhat noisier. This is commonly observed when using the derivative math function.  The derivative is calculated by dividing the difference between adjacent sample values by the sample time interval. The difference operation tends to emphasize noise, especially when the rate of change of the signal is low, as on the peaks of the sine wave. The noise spikes at the peaks of the derivative signal are obvious.  Maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio of differentiated waveforms is good practice. This can be done by filtering the signal before the math operation using the noise filters in the input channel.

Measuring current through an inductor based on the voltage across it.

A related mathematical operation, integration, can be used to determine the current through an inductor from the integral of the inductor’s voltage.

Another series circuit, this time with an inductor, illustrates the mathematical operations performed on the oscilloscope (Figure 4).

Figure 4 A signal generator supplies a sine wave as Vin(t).  The oscilloscope measures the voltage across the inductor, IL(t). Source: Art Pini

The oscilloscope is configured to integrate the voltage across the inductor, VL(t), and rescale the integral by the reciprocal of the inductance. Changing the units to Amperes completes the process (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Calculating the current in the series circuit using Ohm’s law with the resistor and integrating the inductor voltage. Source: Art Pini

This process also produces similar results.  The series current calculated from the resistor voltage drop is 6.625 mA, while the current calculated by integrating the inductor voltage is 6.682 mA, a difference of 0.057 mA. The phase difference between the inductor current and voltage is -89.69°.

The integration setup requires adding a constant of integration, thereby imposing an initial condition on the current. Since integration is a cumulative process, any offset will generate a ramp function. The constant in the integration setup must be adjusted to produce a level response if the integration produces a waveform that slopes up or down.

Magnetic measurements hysteresis plots

The magnetic properties of inductors and transformers can be calculated from the voltage across and the current through the inductor. The circuit in Figure 4, with appropriate input and resistance settings, can be used. Based on these inputs, the inductor’s magnetic field strength, usually represented by the symbol H, can be calculated from the measured current.

Where: H is the magnetic field strength in Amperes per meter (A/m)

IL is the current through the inductor in Amperes

n is the number of turns of wire about the inductor core

l is the magnetic path length in meters        

The oscilloscope calculates the magnetic field strength by rescaling the measured capacitor current. 

The magnetic flux density, denoted B, is computed from the voltage across the inductor.

Where B is the magnetic flux density in Teslas

VL is the voltage across the inductor

n is the number of turns of wire about the inductor core

A is the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core in meter2

The flux density is proportional to the integral of the inductor’s voltage. The constant or proportionality is the reciprocal of the product of the number of turns and the magnetic cross-sectional area. These calculations are built into most oscilloscope power analysis software packages, which use them to display the magnetic hysteresis plot of an inductor (Figure 6).

Figure 6 A power analysis software package calculates B and H from the inductor voltage and current and the geometry of the inductor. Source: Art Pini

The analysis software prompts the user for the inductor geometry, including n, A, and l. It integrates the inductor voltage (top trace) and scales the integral using the constants to obtain the flux density B (second trace from the top). The current (third trace from the top) is rescaled to obtain the magnetic field strength (Bottom trace. The flux density (B) is plotted against the field strength (H) to obtain the hysteresis diagram.

Area within and X-Y plot

Many applications involving cyclic phenomena result in the need to determine the area enclosed by an X-Y plot. The magnetic hysteresis plot is an example. The area inside a hysteresis plot represents the energy loss per cycle per unit volume in a magnetic core. The area within an X-Y plot can be calculated based on the X and Y signals.  The oscilloscope acquires both traces as a function of time, t. The variables can be changed in the integral to calculate the area based on the acquired traces:

Note that both integration and differentiation are involved in this calculation. To implement this on an oscilloscope, we need to differentiate one trace, multiply it by the other, and integrate the result.  The integral, evaluated over one cycle of the periodic waveform, equals the area contained within the X-Y plot. Here is an example using an XY plot that is easy to check (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Using a triangular voltage waveform and a square wave current waveform, the X-Y plot is a rectangle. Source: Art Pini

The area enclosed by a rectangular X-Y plot is easy to calculate based on the cursor readouts, which measure the X and Y ranges. The relative cursors are positioned at diagonally opposed corners, and the amplitude readouts for the cursors for each signal appear in the respective dialog boxes. The X displacement, the rectangle’s base, is 320.31 mV, and the Y displacement, the rectangle’s height, is 297.63 mA.  The area enclosed within the rectangle is the product of the base times the height, or 95.33 mW.

Taking the derivative of the voltage signal on channel 1 yields a square wave. Multiplying it by the current waveform in channel 2 and integrating the product yields a decaying ramp (Figure 8).

Figure 8 The integrated product is measured over one input waveform cycle to obtain the area within the X-Y plot. Source: Art Pini

The area of the X-Y plot is read as the difference in the amplitudes at the cursor locations. This is displayed in the dialog box for the math trace F2, where the integral was calculated. The difference is 95.28 mW, which is almost identical to the product of the base and height. The advantage of this method is that it works regardless of the shape of the X-Y plot. 

Practical examples

These are just a few practical examples of applying an oscilloscope’s integration and differentiation math to common electrical measurements that yield insights into a circuit’s behavior that are not directly measurable.

Arthur Pini is a technical support specialist and electrical engineer with over 50 years of experience in electronics test and measurement.

Related Content

• Oscilloscope math functions aid circuit analysis
• Perform five common debug tasks with an oscilloscope
• FFTs and oscilloscopes: A practical guide
• Use waveform math to extend the capabilities of your DSO or digitizer
• Oscilloscopes provide basic measurements

The post Using integration and differentiation in an oscilloscope appeared first on EDN.

Preventing fires and other calamities by proactively shutting off power in advance of inclement weather is dependent on forecast precision; customers’ needs should also be a considered factor.

Following up on my prior blog post, wherein I detailed my “interesting” mid-November, I’ll now share that mid-December was “interesting” as well, albeit for a different reason.

I’ve mentioned before that my residence in the Rocky Mountain foothills west of Denver, CO, is no stranger to inclement weather. Mid-year monsoon storms are a regular presence, for example, such as a September 2024 example that, like 2014 and 2015 predecessors, zapped various electronic devices, leaving them useful only as teardown patients going forward.

Everyone knows it’s Windy

More generally, it tends to be “breezy” here, both on a sustained and (especially) gusty basis. See for example the multi-day screenshots I snagged as I was preparing to work on this writeup:

That said, mid-December 2025 was especially crazy. On Monday, December 15, Xcel Energy began warning of a potential preparatory outage beginning that same Wednesday, initially affecting approximately a half-million customers but downgraded a day later to roughly 50,000 (including us), along with additional potential outages as conditions both in-advance warranted and ended up being the case, resulting from high wind damage (the affected total that day ended up being 100,000+). Indeed, we ended up losing power, the result of a controlled shutoff beginning late Wednesday morning the 17th, and we also subsequently experienced extremely high winds at our location.

Here’s a screenshot I grabbed right at the initially forecasted 73 mph gust peak that evening:

and another, a couple of hours later, once the intensity had begun to dissipate, indicating that the actual peak gust at my location had been 85 mph:

Thursday the 18th was comparatively calm, and our residence power was briefly restored starting at 5:30 that evening. Early the next morning, however, the electricity went down again due to another Xcel Energy-initiated controlled shutoff, in advance of another extremely high-winds day. We got our power back to stay on Saturday evening the 20th at around 5 pm. That said, Xcel’s service to the affected region wasn’t fully restored until well into the following week.

Legal and fiscal precedent

Here’s some historical background on why Xcel Energy might have made this preparatory shutoff decision, and to this degree. On December 30, 2021, a grass fire in Boulder County, Colorado (north of me), later referred to as the Marshall Fire, started and was subsequently fueled by 115 mph peak wind gusts:

The fire caused the evacuation of 37,500 people, killed two people, and destroyed more than 1,000 structures to become the most destructive fire in Colorado history.

Xcel Energy was later assigned responsibility for one of the fire’s two root causes, although Wikipedia’s entry points out that it “was neither caused by criminal negligence nor arson.”

In June 2023, Boulder County Sheriff Curtis Johnson announced that the fire’s causes had been found. He said that the fire was caused by two separate occurrences: “week-old embers on Twelve Tribes property and a sparking Xcel Energy power line.”

Wikipedia goes on to note that “Xcel Energy has faced more than 200 lawsuits filed by victims of the fire.” Those lawsuits were settled en masse two-plus years later, and less than three months ahead of the subsequent wind-related incident I’m documenting today:

On September 24, 2025, just ahead of trial, the parties reached a settlement. Pursuant to the agreement, Xcel will pay $640 million without admitting liability for the Marshall Fire. The settlement, which also includes Qwest Corp. and Teleport Communications America, resolves claims brought by individual plaintiffs, insurance companies, and public entities impacted by the fire. The resolution avoids what was anticipated to be a lengthy trial. No additional details regarding the settlement have been disclosed at this time.

A providential outcome (for us, at least)

The prolonged outage, I’m thankful to say, only modestly affected my wife and me. We stuck it out at the house through Wednesday night, but given that the high winds precluded us from using our fireplaces as an alternative heart source (high winds also precluded the use of solar cell banks to recharge our various EcoFlow portable power setups, a topic which I’ll explore in detail in a subsequent post), we ended up dropping off our dog at a nearby kennel and heading “down the hill” the next (Thursday) morning to a still-powered hotel room for a few days:

Thanks in no small part to the few-hour electric power restoration overnight on Thursday, plus the cold outside temperatures, we ended up only needing to toss the contents of our kitchen refrigerator. The food in its freezer, plus that in both the refrigerator/freezer and standalone chest freezer in the garage, all survived. And both the house and its contents more generally made it through the multiple days of high winds largely unscathed.

Likely unsurprising to you, the public outcry at Xcel Energy’s shutoff decision, including but not limited to its extent and duration, has been heated. Some of it—demanding that the utility immediately bury all of its power lines, and at no cost to customers—is IMHO fundamentally, albeit understandably (we can’t all be power grid engineers, after all) ignorant. See, for example, my recent photograph of a few of the numerous high voltage lines spanning the hills above Golden:

There’s also grousing about the supposed inflated salaries of various Xcel Energy executives, for example, along with the as-usual broader complaints about Xcel Energt and other regulated monopolies.

That all said, I realize that other residents had it much worse off than us; they weren’t able to, and/or couldn’t afford to, relocate to a warm, electrified hotel room as we did, for example. Their outage(s) may have lasted longer than ours. They might have needed to throw out and replace more (and maybe all) of their refrigerated and frozen food (the same goes for grocery stores, restaurants, and the like). And their homes, businesses, and other possessions might have been damaged and/or destroyed by the high winds as well. All of it fueling frustration.

Results-rationalized actions?

But that all said, at the end of the day I haven’t heard of any fires resulting from the mid-December high winds, or for that matter the more recent ones primarily in the eastern half of the state and elsewhere (the two screenshots I shared at the beginning of this writeup showed the more modest effects at my particular location) that prompted another proactive shutdown. And of course, weather forecasting is an inexact science at best, so Xcel Energy’s conservative potential over-estimation of how large a region to shut down and for how long may at least somewhat understandable, particularly in light of the recent sizeable settlement it just paid out.

In closing, I’m curious to hear what you think. Was Xcel Energy too pessimistic with its decisions and actions? Or maybe too optimistic? And is there anything it could do better and/or more to both in-advance predict and in-the-moment react to conditions in the air and on the ground, as well as to repair and revive service afterwards?

To wit, while I intended the word “oversight” in this write-up’s title to reference the following definition option:

• Supervision; watchful care.

I realized in looking up the word that two other definition options are also ironically listed:

• An omission or error due to carelessness.
• Unintentional failure to notice or consider; lack of proper attention.

Which one(s) apply in this case? Let me know your thoughts in the comments!

—Brian Dipert is the Principal at Sierra Media and a former technical editor at EDN Magazine, where he still regularly contributes as a freelancer.

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The post Preemptive utilities shutdown oversight: Too much, too little, or just right? appeared first on EDN.

Звіт проректора з розвитку інфраструктури КПІ Олександра Мирончука на засіданні Вченої ради 15 грудня 2025 року "Розвиток інфраструктури університету: досягнення 2025 року" Інформація КП чт, 02/19/2026 - 14:02