Збирач потоків

Prashant Verma, Sub-Editor, ELE Times

​You are driving a car that runs on petrol. A sudden announcement from the government increased the price of petrol due to a shortage, and the government is also telling people to use public transport for day-to-day commutes instead of using their private cars. Many countries have faced this fuel crisis in recent years caused by the war between the United States and Israel against Iran.

Any unexpected global situation can cause restrictions on using gasoline. A better alternative addressing this challenge is adopting electric vehicles, which not only eliminate dependence on fuel but also reduce air pollution, maintenance costs, and vibration compared to fuel-operated vehicles.

Electrification is the process of powering a machine or an entire unit using electricity instead of depending on non renewable natural sources like fossil fuels. This technology supports the global economy by replacing high import charges on fossil fuels with domestic electrical energy and thereby reducing import bills. In simple terms, electrification means replacing traditional methods and technologies operated by combustion fuels with electrical energy delivering the same amount of work at reasonable cost.

Why is Electrification Important?

Modern technologies are shifting towards electrification not only in transportation but also across every major sector of the global economy. The primary reasons for shifting towards electrification include improving energy efficiency, utilising renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, and biomass energy to produce electricity, and lowering carbon emissions.

Governments and international organisations such as the United States and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) are focusing on utilising renewable energy sources to manufacture and power infrastructure such as transportation, industry, buildings, digital infrastructure for data centres and communication networks, and urban infrastructure to establish smart cities.

Given below is the list of targets global organizations aim to achieve in making efficient use of renewable energy sources.

1. Triple Renewable Capacity by 2030: Increasing the production of electricity that powers machines using natural sources reduces carbon dioxide emissions lowers production cost. Many international agencies are aiming to scale global renewable power capacity to over 11,000 GW by 2030, driven by solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy.
2. Global Investment: Governing bodies such as European Commission (EC), World Bank Group & Climate Investment Funds (CIF), and COP31 Presidency are aggressively scaling up investments to triple global renewable energy capacity by 2030. This could provide many benefits such as limiting global warming, reducing reliance on volatile global fossil fuel markets, and creating millions of new clean-energy jobs.
3. Net-Zero Emissions: Around 145 countries are targeting reducing the emission of harmful gases into the atmosphere. These emissions include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases. The countries aim to limit the emission of global greenhouse gases as low as possible by 2050 and balance the remaining emissions through restoring forests or using carbon-removal technologies.

Electrification in Transportation

Electric vehicles have become very popular among people these days because core engineering provides superior performance, cost-effectiveness, and advancements in technology through software integration and cloud connectivity infrastructure compared to fuel-powered cars. The key factors driving the rising demand for electric vehicles include improvement in battery and range; low operating and maintenance costs; a fast-charging network; and superior performance and acceleration. As a result of these developments, transportation is one of the most visible areas of electrification.

One major advantage of using electric vehicles is that they generate power while working. When an EV slows down by applying brakes, the produced kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy and stored in chemical form inside a battery. This feature is not available in fuel-powered cars.

Electrification in transportation covers not only passenger vehicles but also heavy load carrying vehicles, including electric buses and electric trucks. The vehicles are aggressively used in countries like China, the Netherlands, Germany, Chile, and India. The main reasons for adopting these vehicles include less utilisation of fuel and because of this, it supports the country’s economy by lowering import dependence, reducing maintenance, and building a new environment-friendly infrastructure.

The government is also expanding the infrastructure of the rapid metro, which also uses electricity for carrying out its operations. A recent development in this area is the proposed Delhi-Panipat-Karnal Namo Bharat Corridor by the government with an estimated budget of Rs 33,051.15 crore. The train covers 136.30 km starting from Sarai Kale Khan in New Delhi and terminating at Karnal ISBT (New ISBT) in Haryana.

Electrification in the Industry

Electrification in industry refers to the process of replacing fossil fuels and relevant manufacturing equipment with electrically powered alternatives and electrical power should be generated from renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind power, or hydropower. Conventional industrial processes rely on fossil-fuel technology for manufacturing processes because it provides high-energy density, consistently fulfils production demands in manufacturing processes, and supports large-scale infrastructure.

Fossil-fuel technologies were superior in the past due to their high-power delivery and cost-effectiveness at scale. However, they have certain limitations and problems when manufacturing goods. Following is the list of disadvantages of using fossil-fuel technology in mass production.

• Atmospheric Pollution: Burning fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum gas leads to the emission of harmful gases into the environment, such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane, and carbon monoxide. It also releases toxic byproducts and heavy metals into the environment which drive global environmental challenges.
• Operational Inefficiencies: Using fossil fuels on an industrial scale loses a significant portion of energy as waste in the form of heat and byproducts, making the process less energy-efficient for energy conversion.
• Resource Depletion: Fossil fuels are extracted from nature and they are non-renewable sources of energy. Continuous usage of these sources in the long term makes them unavailable from easily accessible reserves.

Adopting electrification on an industrial scale is a smart move which not only saves the environment but also provides lower maintenance costs and higher energy efficiency compared to fossil-fuel methods. At present, adopting this technology can reduce fossil fuel energy consumption by 40% to 50%.

Given below is the list of technologies we can use at industry scale to reduce the need of fossil fuel at industry scale:

1. Low-to-Medium Heat (<400°C): Using Industrial heat pumps, electric boilers, and resistance heating for food & beverage, paper and textiles.
2. Industrial Motion & Logistics: Using electric forklifts, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and high-efficiency e motors to move raw materials and transport work-in-progress products between production stages.
3. Heavy Duty Transport: Using 800 V high-voltage powertrains, heavy-duty electric cranes for mining, ports, steel manufacturing, and operating equipment that requires high-power and torque.

Electrification and Renewable Energy

Electrification in industry refers to the process of replacing fossil fuels and relevant manufacturing equipment with electrically powered alternatives, and the electrical power should be generated from renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind power, or hydropower. Conventional industrial processes rely on fossil-fuel technology for manufacturing processes because it provides high-energy density, consistently fulfils production demands in manufacturing processes, and supports large-scale infrastructure.

Many countries are putting their efforts into shifting towards electrification. Given below is the list of strategies adopted by countries in shifting towards electrification:

1. The EV Revolution and Transport Leapfrogging: Using electric vehicles for transportation purposes remains a strong target for rapid electrification. In 2026, sales records for fully electric vehicles reached 18% globally due to their affordable imports and local regulations.
2. Grid Modernisation: To fulfil the rising power demands of modern technologies such as AI, data centres, electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and smart appliances, countries are improving their grid infrastructure by upgrading physical hardware and integrating digital technologies. Developing countries are deploying core technologies such as advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) to improve grid efficiency, lower technical losses, and strengthen power supply reliability.
3. Industrial and Building Electrification: Manufacturers are looking for alternative methods and tools for replacing fossil fuels and setting up large-scale electrification infrastructure. The European Commission introduced its Electrification Action Plan aiming to enhance the production of clean energy by increasing the share of electricity in final energy consumption from around 23% to 46% by 2040.

Conclusion

Modern civilization is going through a process of energy transformation. Electric vehicles are reshaping transport, electric machinery and process equipment are transforming industry, heat pumps are modernising building energy systems, and batteries are opening up new possibilities for electricity storage.

The change towards adopting electrification will not happen at the same rate across different sectors. Some sectors can easily adopt electrification such as buildings, transport, and low-temperature industry because of existing technological setup, while other sectors like steel production and long-distance transport face technical and infrastructure limitations. In cases where electrification alone cannot supply enough power to perform operations, it is likely to work along with hydrogen, sustainable fuels, renewable energy and energy-storage systems.

The post Electrification Explained: How Electric Technologies Are Reshaping Transport, Industry and Energy appeared first on ELE Times.

It provides a warning when the environment it is placed in contains gas above the danger threshold; it is suitable for detecting LPG leaks, methane and so on.

The dangers of gas leaks at home

How many times on television, on news websites or in newspapers have we heard reports of domestic accidents caused by kitchen and heating gas leaks, whether from the mains or from a cylinder? From these, and from the stories we unfortunately hear, we know well the dangers that come from gas escaping and saturating a room. These dangers consist not so much in poisoning, since combustible gases for domestic use do not poison when inhaled in modest amounts, but rather in explosion. This can occur from a spark in the room, caused for example by a switch, a relay contact or an electromechanical thermostat.

That is why you must always be able to understand in good time whether a pipe, a cooker, a boiler or a gas stove is leaking. If we are at home and awake, we normally notice it by the smell, but when we are away the leak can become extremely dangerous. In reality, pure methane is odourless: what we smell is due to the addition of substances called mercaptans or other odorising agents.

How to protect yourself from a gas leak

To protect against risks of this kind, so-called “gas detectors” have long existed; they may simply generate an optical or acoustic warning, emitted by a solid-state transducer driven by a transistor to avoid the onset of sparks, or they may produce, in addition to the audible and visual alarm, the shut-off of the incoming gas pipe. The latter happens by driving a solenoid valve suitably placed in series with the pipe leaving the meter. What we propose you build in these pages is precisely a circuit with a double action: signalling and gas shut-off.

This device is based on a classic combustible gas sensor (and not only that) with a heated sensing element, on which we will spend a few paragraphs before going on to look at the electrical schematic of the circuit that implements our gas presence alarm.

Where the gas goes: LPG and methane compared

When a combustible gas leak occurs, the danger that results depends on the specific weight of the gas itself, because the way it spreads changes. If we limit ourselves to those most commonly used in the kitchen and for heating, we see that LPG, typically the gas in cylinders or in outdoor tanks buried or above ground, being heavier than air tends to settle low down. In a house, this means it tends to go down into the cellar, for example, because it spreads the way water would.

This behaviour is a significant danger both because it is difficult to detect an LPG leak while standing up, except when the room is so saturated that the slightest spark can blow everything up, and because the gas could accumulate in a basement or, outdoors, in a driveway or a part of a courtyard below street level. This creates a potentially explosive “pool”. This is one of the reasons why LPG-powered cars are not accepted in underground garages and parking areas.

As for natural gas, more familiarly known as methane (even though it is not pure methane), it has a specific weight lower than that of air, so it tends to go upwards: towards the ceiling of closed rooms, towards the sky if the leak is in the open air. Therefore a natural gas leak in a house is more easily noticed while standing up.

The MQ-2 sensor: characteristics

The detector device used to detect the presence of gas is the MQ-2 made by Hanwei Electronics (www.hwsensor.com) and it is based on the well-proven metal oxide film structure, long used successfully to detect gases and aerosols such as those caused by solvents and alcohols. Specifically, the sensor used in the project described here can detect LPG, isobutane, propane, methane, hydrogen, but also, albeit with different sensitivity, ethyl alcohol, carbon monoxide (CO) and combustion smoke.

The sensing element consists of a layer of oxide that is heated by a filament underneath, powered through two dedicated pins (labelled H for heater) so as to reach the optimal temperature for its operation. The filament has a cold resistance (at room temperature) of about 33 ohm, is made of a nickel-chromium alloy and has no polarity, but should preferably be powered with direct current, at least for our purposes.

The metal film is applied to a tubular ceramic support made of alumina (Al2O3), which is an electrically insulating material; it is made of tin dioxide (SnO2) and its characteristic is that, when heated, it becomes permeable to varying degrees to the atoms of the gases to which it is sensitive.

Structure and usage diagram of the sensor

In Fig. 1 you can see how the sensor is normally used and how it is electrically constructed. As you can see, in use the sensor is connected in a divider with a resistor, preferably variable so that its sensitivity can be adapted, across which a DC voltage will be taken whose amplitude is closely tied to the concentration of gas in the air.

Contact with the gas and the resulting chemical oxidation-reduction reaction alter the electrical conductivity of the tin dioxide film, which under normal conditions is relatively high: in fact the resistance measurable at rest, which the manufacturer calls Rs, is on the order of a few kohm.

To be precise, the manufacturer defines Ro as the resistance of the sensing element at a concentration in air of 1,000 ppm of hydrogen: that value is the reference one. To give an idea of how the sensing layer of the MQ-2 responds to the various gases, in Fig. 2 we present the sensitivity graph for the various gases and aerosols, at a room temperature of 20 °C with a relative air humidity of 65% and an oxygen concentration in the air of 21%.

The gas sensitivity curve

The curve refers to a load resistor (that is, the one with which, as we will see in the electrical schematic, the sensing layer must form a divider) of 5kΩ. From the graph it is clear that the sensing element of the MQ-2 sensor also responds to the presence of various aerosols and gases, because the tin dioxide film behaves that way, although in the case of the sensor we use the behaviour towards combustible gases is the relevant one.

From the curves we can see how in clean air the ratio between the resistance assumed by the sensor and the reference resistance Ro stays unchanged as the concentration varies, while it decreases to varying degrees (because Rs decreases as the concentration increases) as the concentration of gas, alcohol, etc. increases. The slope of the resistance drop, or of the conductivity increase, is fairly linear and depends on the gas or aerosol; for example if it is 0.6 times for every decade of the logarithmic diagram, then if a gas concentration of 1,000 ppm corresponds to a value of Rs/Ro, at ten times that concentration the ratio RS/Ro will become about 0.6 times.

Calculating the Rs/Ro ratio

If we take for example LPG, which is the typical cylinder gas, from Fig. 2 we notice an Rs/Ro ratio of about 0.8 at 1,000 ppm, which falls to about 0.27 at 10,000 ppm, so the average slope is about 0.35. For methane, on the other hand, Rs/Ro is 3 at 200 ppm and 1.5 at 2,000 ppm, with a rate of 0.5.

The value of Rs given by the manufacturer for an iso-butane concentration of 1,000 ppm is about 3; in this specific case, since Rs/Ro is about 0.9 at 1,000 ppm, it follows that Ro is roughly equal to 3.3 kohm. To detect the change in resistance of the film, the latter is placed in a resistive divider powered at 5V and having as its load resistance (the one going to the ground of the measurement circuit) typically 5 kohm, as shown in Fig. 1. As the concentration of gases in the air entering the MQ-2 increases, the resistance of the sensing film decreases and consequently the voltage measurable across the load resistor increases, which will be read as described below.

Electrical schematic of the circuit

Now that we have explained how the MQ-2 sensor is built and how it works, let’s analyse the circuit we have placed it in, to obtain the two functions we set out to achieve: a visual and audible indication, provided respectively by an LED and a piezoelectric buzzer, as well as the switching of a circuit by means of a relay contact. On this point we want to reassure you, because the contact is not exposed to the environment, since the relay used is the sealed type: therefore no dangerous sparks will be generated if gas is detected above the concentrations that constitute a hazard.

The resistive divider and the trigger

Looking at the circuit diagram you can see that we adopt the configuration mentioned above, where the resistance of the sensing element is placed in series with a resistor, forming a divider with it; since the sensor is analogue, between the series of resistors R3 and R5 we obtain a voltage that varies according to the graph in Fig. 2 as a function of the concentration of gas or alcohol aerosol.

Since R5 is a trimmer, it is possible to vary the amplitude of the voltage obtained, that is, the ratio between the potential difference presented at pin 2 of the integrated circuit U1 and ground, and the supply voltage of the filament, which is 5 volts DC. The trimmer is 10 kohm (R3 has a negligible value compared with it), so we can vary the sensitivity of the circuit over a wide margin.

As specified by the manufacturer of the MQ-2, in series with the heater filament we have placed a resistor that limits its current and with it the power dissipated, keeping within safe values that guarantee both the correct response and long-term durability and stability. The signal provided by the sensing element, and therefore the voltage across the R3-R5 series, is used in a rather unusual way: no reading by the DAC of a microcontroller or anything like that, but much more simply we send it to the trigger input of an ordinary 555 timer, whose internal flip-flops we exploit.

The role of the 555 timer

To understand what role the 555 plays we need to look at what is inside it, with the help of the block diagram shown in Fig. 3: in the 555 we find two comparators sharing a resistor-ladder voltage divider that biases the inverting input of the upper op-amp and the non-inverting input of the lower one.

Of the comparators, the non-inverting input of the upper one is made accessible from outside (the terms upper and lower refer to the reference potential they receive from the multiple divider, so the upper comparator receives the higher voltage), corresponding to pin 6 (THR, that is Threshold), and the inverting input of the upper one, corresponding to pin 2 (TRI, that is Trigger). The node between the first and second resistor (starting from the positive supply, that is from pin 8) of the multiple reference divider of the two comparators is brought outside via pin 5 (CV), which however we do not use in this circuit.

The internal RS flip-flop

What interests us is what comes next: the outputs of the comparators drive, one the RESET (that of the upper comparator) and the other the SET input (lower comparator) of an RS-type flip-flop. This is a logic circuit whose direct output (Q) goes high, corresponding to approximately the potential of pin 8, when SET is high, that is it assumes logic zero if SET is taken to about zero volts; the output behaves in exactly the opposite way when the RESET input is activated, which, when taken to a logic high level, resets the flip-flop, bringing the logic state of the direct output Q to zero.

The flip-flop has a complemented output (/Q), whose logic condition is always the inverse of that of Q; in the 555 it drives the base of an NPN transistor configured in open collector mode, whose emitter is connected to ground and whose collector goes to pin DIS (Discharge, 7), which we do not use in this application. The direct output, Q, is connected to pin Vo (3) of the integrated circuit and can deliver up to 200 mA.

The negative supply, that is the reference ground of the 555, corresponds to pin 1, while pin 4 is connected to the inverted-logic reset of the flip-flop: this pin allows the circuit to be forcibly reset from outside by applying a logic low level, but we have fixed it high because we are not interested in it. In the application described here we have connected pin 6 to the positive supply, so that the upper comparator cannot switch and its output remains constantly high; and with it the reset of the flip-flop.

Alarm activation

So we will use only the lower comparator, which is connected to the trigger pin; every time pin 2 is taken to a logic low level, the output (pin 3) of the 555 goes to a logic high level. So as long as the gas concentration is low and the voltage across the R3-R5 series of resistors is below 1/3 of the 555 supply voltage, the output of the latter remains high. If the concentration rises enough to bring the voltage between pin 2 and ground above 1/3 of the supply voltage, the lower comparator takes its output low and the set of the flip-flop returns to a low level.

In this condition the reset state prevails and the direct output of the flip-flop goes low; this condition powers the piezoelectric buzzer and the positive-test LED marked LD2, biased through the current-limiting resistor R2. But not only that: pin 3 of the 555 also powers the coil of relay RL1.

Power supply and relay output

To protect the output transistor of the 555 from the reverse overvoltages that occur across the relay coil when it is deprived of power, we have provided diode D1, connected in antiparallel with it, which when reverse-biased short-circuits the current and suppresses the overvoltage.

Of RL1 we make the contact available limited to terminals C and NO, so that it can be used as a simple switch, for applications where it is sufficient to activate an indicator or a device whose operation is not critical.

That said, we conclude the description of the circuit diagram with the power supply, which must be a maximum stabilised DC voltage of 5V and must be applied to the power plug observing the polarity indicated; to switch the circuit on and off we have provided a changeover switch used as a switch, marked SW1, from whose wiper the supply is taken for the MQ-2 sensor, for the 555 and for the rest of the circuit, including the relay coil (at 5V). Between the positive line and ground, at the output of the switch, is LED LD1, powered through resistor R1, which lights up to indicate when the circuit is powered and therefore working.

Practical construction: assembly

Well, now that we have described how the gas sensor works we can see how to build it, starting from the printed circuit board we have designed to host all the necessary components, including the MQ-2 sensor. The PCB is double-sided and to allow you to make it by photoetching we publish the two copper-side traces to be printed on tracing paper or acetate to obtain the necessary films.

Once the printed circuit board has been etched and drilled, you can mount the necessary components on it, starting with the lowest-profile ones such as resistors and the silicon diode (to be oriented as shown in the assembly diagram visible on the next page), then continuing with the socket for the 555, the horizontal trimmer and the slide switch with right-angle pins. Then proceed with the DC power jack, the gas sensor (don’t worry about the insertion direction because it has pins repeated on both sides…) the 5V miniature relay, the buzzer and the two LEDs.

Pay attention to the polarity of the latter, whose cathodes (corresponding to the chamfer on the package) must face the piezo buzzer BZ1; the latter is the type with built-in electronics, so it has a polarity to observe, therefore when inserting it into the respective holes of the board hold it with the + facing the side of the board along which it is to be positioned. The photos of the prototype and the assembly diagram found on this page are in any case helpful during the various assembly stages for placing the polarised components the right way round.

As for power, the circuit needs a mains power supply with a stabilised 5 VDC output, capable of delivering 250 milliamperes of current and fitted with a plug compatible with the jack socket, with the positive on the centre pin.

Calibration and use of the detector

To use the circuit, the first thing to do is turn the switch to ON; after that you will probably hear the buzzer sound, because you will most likely need to adjust the trimmer to set the alarm threshold, that is, the sensitivity of the detector. At this point, if there is no gas in the air, turn the trimmer anticlockwise and then release it the moment you no longer hear the buzzer sounding.

For a correct calibration it is advisable to leave the device powered for a few minutes (at least 5 minutes) with the trimmer at minimum and only then proceed with the calibration, because by that point the sensor element, that is, its sensitive film, will have reached its operating temperature and its behaviour will be stable.

Once the calibration has been carried out, the device can be used. If gas is present above the set threshold, the red LED will light up, the buzzer will sound and the relay will energise, closing the contact on connector CN1. For calibration you can use a lighter by pressing the button but without striking the spark, so that the gas comes out; the lighter must be placed under the MQ-2 sensor or in front of it.

Alternatively, you can place the circuit with the sensor over a gas burner without lighting the flame, but it must be a burner without a thermocouple, otherwise the gas will be shut off. A small camping cylinder also works, but always remember to take the greatest care because the gas it contains is highly flammable and explosive! Clearly, this kind of adjustment is empirical.

Driving an external siren

As mentioned earlier, our circuit is designed not only to give visual and audible warnings via LED and buzzer, but is also configured to activate a relay. This relay can be used to connect additional alarm devices, such as the SI-280 12V siren model, which serves to signal an emergency, for example in the event of a gas leak. Adding an alarm siren significantly improves safety, because when a gas leak is detected the system activates the siren to promptly warn the people in the area.

This aspect is particularly relevant at night or in situations where the sound of the buzzer might not be enough to wake or alert the people present. To trigger the siren when the alarm activates, you use the changeover of relay RL1 between contacts C and NO (as shown in Fig. 4).

Relay wiring and protection

In this way, when the relay activates, the siren’s power circuit closes, allowing the siren itself to emit its audible warning. The relay included in the circuit can handle loads of up to 3A, both in direct and alternating current, and supports voltages up to 120V. This means that, if the siren runs at 12V, it can be powered directly through the changeover of the relay on the printed circuit board.

If the siren does not have its own power source, you can use an external wall-cube type power supply, connecting the positive pole through the relay.

The relay used in our circuit is designed to be sealed and therefore to minimise sparking during switching. This detail further increases the safety of the system. To guarantee even greater protection from sparks, which could still occur on rare occasions, we recommend connecting a 10 nF, 400V polyester capacitor between contacts C and NC of the relay.

This precaution helps to quickly extinguish any sparks, preserving the integrity of the relay over time and maintaining high safety standards. It is important to remember that the circuit design includes a 2.54 mm pitch two-pole pin strip to make contacts C and NO of the relay easily accessible, so to connect the NC, which is needed for the siren configuration, you have to work on the corresponding pad on the copper side of the printed circuit board, identifiable as the only isolated terminal of RL1.

Related products

• Gas presence detector with audible and visual alarm
• PIEZO SIREN 6-12V

The post Gas Leak Detector: Alarm for LPG and Methane Leaks appeared first on Open Electronics.

Infineon Technologies AG and Wolfspeed, Inc. have signed a new multi-year supply agreement for 200-millimeter silicon carbide (SiC) wafers, transitioning Infineon’s existing Wolfspeed supply relationship from 150-millimeter to 200 millimetre substrate technology. SiC semiconductors have become a key enabling technology for the electrification and energy efficiency applications that drive global decarbonization, from electric vehicles and renewable energy systems to AI datacenter power infrastructure. The agreement directly supports Infineon’s conversion to 200-millimeter SiC manufacturing, strengthening Infineon’s position as the global leader in power semiconductors and reinforcing the supply chain resilience that underpins its SiC growth strategy.

“Silicon carbide is at the heart of the energy transition, and securing a high-quality, resilient supply of 200-millimeter substrates is essential to delivering on our customers’ long-term commitments,” said Alexander Gorski, Chief Operations Officer at Infineon. “This agreement further broadens our strong supply base for our 200-millimeter high-volume manufacturing, building on a 20-year supply relationship between our two companies. It strengthens supply chain security for our customers and provides additional flexibility and scalability to support Infineon’s future growth.”

AI datacentres are beginning to emerge as a significant demand driver for SiC power semiconductors. Power conversion efficiency across the datacentre power chain is a direct operating cost consideration for hyperscalers managing infrastructure at scale. The switching efficiency and thermal performance of SiC make it a technically suitable option for specific power conversion stages where silicon reaches its practical limits. Together with growing SiC adoption across electric vehicle drivetrains, solar inverters and industrial motor drives, these trends support a strong long-term outlook for high-quality 200-millimeter SiC substrates.

The transition to 200-millimeter SiC wafers delivers large manufacturing economics compared to 150-millimeter production. Larger wafer diameter increases usable die area per wafer, reduces per-unit substrate cost, and improves overall manufacturing efficiency. Infineon operates a multi-source SiC substrate strategy to maintain supply chain flexibility and quality across its global manufacturing network, including its world-class 200-millimeter SiC fab in Kulim, Malaysia, which is designed to be the world’s largest and most competitive silicon carbide manufacturing facility.

The post Infineon Signs 200-Millimeter Silicon Carbide Wafer Supply Agreement With Wolfspeed to Further Strengthen Supply Chain Resilience appeared first on ELE Times.

Keysight Technologies, Inc. today introduced its Protocol Test Solution for PCIe 7.0, an integrated platform that enables engineers to bring up, validate, debug, and verify compliance of next-generation devices and systems at the protocol layer. By combining instant link-up with deep visibility at 128 GT/s, the solution helps development teams identify issues earlier, reduce validation risk, and accelerate the delivery of next generation high-speed PCIe interconnect required for artificial intelligence and data centre infrastructure.

As artificial intelligence workloads increase demand for compute and data bandwidth, PCI Express 7.0 provides next generation interconnect performance by doubling the raw data rate to 128 GT/s. PCI Express 7.0 is expected to become the dominate interconnect for rack-scale systems connecting graphics processing units, accelerators, switches, memory, and storage. This performance increase makes link establishment, protocol behaviour, and interoperability more difficult to validate across increasingly complex architectures.

Reliable link-up is the foundation for meaningful protocol analysis. At the fastest PCIe speeds, engineers need immediate visibility to investigate link training and status state machine (LTSSM) behaviour, FLIT-based encoding, protocol errors, and complex transaction layer issues to isolate problems before they lead to redesigns or cause schedule delays. Keysight addresses this challenge with an architecture designed to provide stable and reliable analysis without analyser tuning, helping teams move from connection to actionable insight faster.

The solution combines a full-featured protocol analyser and exerciser, test platform, and dedicated analysis software. The integrated workflow offers early adopters both a link partner for device bring-up and extensive protocol visibility needed to progress from initial silicon validation through interoperability and compliance testing.

Key benefits of the Protocol Test Solution for PCIe 7.0 include:

• Accelerates time to first measurement: Advanced signal integrity enables reliable protocol trace capture without analyser tuning, giving engineers repeatable results and faster insight.
• Identifies protocol issues faster: Deep visibility into LTSSM transitions, FLIT-based encoding, protocol errors, and transaction layer packet transactions help teams accelerate debug, isolate root causes, validate reliable operation, and verify compliance to PCI Express specifications.
• Reduces early silicon risk: Early collaboration and test availability help teams uncover protocol and interoperability issues sooner, minimizing late-stage rework and shortening development cycles.
• Streamlines end-to-end validation: An integrated analyser, exerciser, test platform, and software environment provides a consistent workflow from bring-up through validation and compliance testing.
• Advances AI infrastructure development: Support for rack-level interconnects and backward compatibility helps engineers validate next-generation scale-up architectures while protecting existing test investments and easing migration.

Neeraj Paliwal, Senior Vice President, Silicon IP Product Management, Synopsys, said: “Establishing a reliable PCIe 7.0 link at 128 GT/s between production silicon and protocol test equipment is a key interoperability milestone. Validating our silicon-proven Synopsys PCIe 7.0 IP solution with Keysight’s protocol solution means customers can commit to their next-generation AI and data centre designs with confidence.”

Dr. Joachim Peerlings, Vice President of Network and Data Center Solutions, Keysight, said: “Successful PCIe 7.0 deployment depends on proven ecosystem interoperability alongside bandwidth advancements. Our collaboration with Synopsys helps customers validate designs earlier, identify issues faster, and gain confidence in the readiness of next generation silicon and systems. Together, we’re accelerating the path from innovation to deployment for AI and data centre applications.”

The post Keysight Introduces PCIe 7.0 Protocol Test Solution to Accelerate AI Infrastructure Validation appeared first on ELE Times.

The Department of Commerce’s CHIPS Program Office has agreed with GlobalFoundries of Malta, NY (the only US-based pure-play foundry with a global manufacturing footprint) to amend its existing award and reallocate up to $955m in incentives under the US CHIPS and Science Act...

Microchip Technology today announces the POL-05-20S-T, a radiation-tolerant, Point-of-Load (POL) converter, designed to address the demanding power requirements of space processing applications. The new device uses Gallium Nitride (GaN) power devices to deliver up to 20A of output current with high efficiency and power density.

The converter is supplied in a compact, 25g surface-mount package measuring 1.51” x 1.51” x 0.45”. By delivering 20A in this footprint, the device helps engineers manage the size, power and energy constraints that accompany increasingly capable onboard processing systems. The GaN-based design is intended to provide a combination of high efficiency, high power density and continuous current capability for challenging space power applications.

“Space designers are integrating increasingly powerful digital processing, creating demand for compact power solutions that can respond quickly, while operating reliably in harsh environments,” said Ronan Dillon, senior director of Microchip’s high-reliability and RF business unit. “The POL-05-20S-T extends our space power portfolio with a high current GaN solution that helps customers achieve high power density, design flexibility and system-level reliability.”

The POL-05-20S-T is designed for high-current, fast-transient applications such as for the core voltage rails of FPGAs, microcontrollers, ASICs and other processing-intensive digital loads. It combines a synchronous buck topology with current-mode control to support fast current transients and stable operation. With a wide input range of 4.75V to 13.2V and adjustable 0.7V to 5V output, the device offers flexibility to address multiple power rails and system architectures.

Designed for harsh radiation environments, the POL-05-20S-T has electrical parameters specified before and after irradiation up to a Total Ionizing Dose (TID) of 50 krad. The device is characterized for Single Event Effects (SEE) up to a Linear Energy Transfer (LET) of 43 MeV·cm²/mg. It operates from −55°C to +100°C at full load, supporting systems exposed to wide temperature variations over the course of a mission.

To support reliable power delivery, the POL-05-20S-T incorporates remote sensing, undervoltage and overvoltage protection, soft start, an enable pin and power-good indication pin. Adjustable output voltage, a wide input range and output droop regulation further help designers tailor the converter to high-current loads requiring tight voltage regulation and rapid transient response.

The post Microchip Expands Space Power Portfolio with New Radiation-Tolerant GaN Point-of-Load Converter appeared first on ELE Times.

A new multi-year agreement has been signed that transitions the existing long-term supply by Wolfspeed Inc of Durham, NC, USA of silicon carbide (SiC) substrates to Infineon Technologies AG of Munich, Germany from 150mm-diameter to 200mm-diameter wafers...

Віктор Витвицький - чотириразовий лауреат премії КМДА Інформація КП пт, 10/16/2026 - 11:45

Тренінг із домедичної допомоги у КПІ: навички, що рятують життя kpi пт, 10/16/2026 - 11:26

Three ESP32 camera boards share the same workbench: the original ESP32-CAM, the ESP32-S3-CAM boards and the XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense. Anand D’s comparison starts with cost, memory and computing power, then moves on to local processing capability. The underlying question is simple: is the project a photo sent to the cloud, or a computer vision model running on the board itself?

The answer changes very quickly. The ESP32-CAM is based on the original ESP32 chip and usually carries a 2 MP OV2640 sensor. On board there are 4 MB of Flash and 4 MB of PSRAM, plus the microSD slot, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. So it captures images, streams video over Wi-Fi, saves photos to microSD and talks to a server or a cloud service. The limitation is a practical one: most boards have no built-in USB, so you need a programming module or a USB-TTL converter. The catalogue includes a USB Type-C interface for the ESP32-CAM, designed to connect the module to a PC and upload sketches without improvised adapters.

ESP32-S3-CAM: dual-core at 240 MHz and sensors up to 5 MP

The generational leap shows in the chip. The ESP32-S3-CAM uses the ESP32-S3 with a dual-core Xtensa LX7 processor up to 240 MHz and typically offers 8 MB of PSRAM. There are two typical configurations: 16 MB of Flash with 8 MB of PSRAM, or 8 MB of Flash with 8 MB of PSRAM. The board also has a USB port, so programming becomes much simpler than with the previous generation.

On the sensor side you can go up in resolution. The ESP32-S3-CAM can carry a 3 MP OV3660 or a 5 MP OV5640. However, the specifications should be checked before buying, because manufacturers differ and the board name does not guarantee the same feature set. The internal SRAM of an ESP32 stays typically around 520 KB, so PSRAM is not a detail: that is where image buffers and model weights end up.

XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense: 21 x 17.8 mm with a digital microphone

The XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense squeezes everything into a very small format: about 21 x 17.8 mm. Inside there are the ESP32-S3, a camera, a digital microphone, microSD support, USB connectivity and a PMIC. The sensor goes up to 3 MP with the OV3660, while memory and Flash stay at 8 MB of PSRAM and 8 MB of Flash. The price of this density is GPIO availability, reduced because the camera and other onboard hardware take up several pins.

• ESP32-CAM: ESP32 chip, 2 MP OV2640, 4 MB Flash, 4 MB PSRAM, microSD, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, no built-in USB on most boards
• ESP32-S3-CAM: ESP32-S3 chip, dual-core Xtensa LX7 up to 240 MHz, 8 MB PSRAM, typical configurations 16 MB plus 8 MB or 8 MB plus 8 MB, USB port, 3 MP OV3660 or 5 MP OV5640 sensors
• XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense: ESP32-S3, OV3660 up to 3 MP, digital microphone, microSD, USB and PMIC, 8 MB PSRAM, 8 MB Flash, about 21 x 17.8 mm

The real point of the comparison is local processing. A small LLM running from PSRAM reached 22 tokens per second, while the same model running from Flash stopped at 2 tokens per second. As a result, fast memory matters more than clock frequency in edge computer vision applications. Anyone who wants to recognise objects, faces or gestures without sending frames to a server should look at PSRAM first and the sensor second.

The choice comes down to three paths. For a simple hobby project, with photos on microSD and Wi-Fi streaming, the ESP32-CAM remains the cheapest route. For those who want to program over USB and fit better sensors, the ESP32-S3-CAM is the most flexible, provided you check the seller’s specifications. Finally, the XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense wins where space is extremely tight and audio is also needed. Anyone who wants to read the full comparison and the details gathered by Anand D will find everything on the maker’s site.

Source: https://circuitdigest.com/articles/esp32-camera-dev-board-comparison

Related products

• ESP32-CAM Programming Interface

The post Three ESP32 camera boards compared: ESP32-CAM, ESP32-S3-CAM and XIAO ESP32-S3 Sense appeared first on Open Electronics.

With artificial intelligence evolving from virtual chatbots into real-world machines and devices, it will shape our lives more than ever. At the electronica trade fair 2026 in Munich, Germany (10 – 13 November), Infineon Technologies AG will showcase customer cases, system solutions, and semiconductor innovations for Physical AI across robotics and mobility, intelligent edge devices as well as the infrastructure necessary to power the age of AI. Technology from Infineon helps machines perceive their environment, communicate in a secured way, process data locally through edge AI, and act on it safely and reliably while using energy as efficiently as possible. Visitors will find Infineon at booth 502 in hall C3.

“Many future machines will sense, think, and act autonomously in real-time, creating unprecedented opportunities in areas ranging from everyday convenience to healthcare, mobility, energy efficiency and economic productivity,” said Andreas Urschitz, Chief Marketing Officer at Infineon. “As AI advances from the cloud to the edge and into the physical world, semiconductor innovation is becoming the critical foundation to deploy intelligence efficiently and turn it into action people can rely on. At electronica, we showcase how, together with our customers and partners, we are building the technology foundation for the AI era.”

Infineon will present its contributions along three focus topics:

Physical AI in robotics and edge solutions.

Robotics is Physical AI’s most complex form, with use cases across the shop floor, the service sector and the home. Semiconductors from Infineon enable every functional block in a robot, from sensing, computing, connectivity to motor control and power. Together, they translate perception into precise movement, while functional safety and cybersecurity embedded at hardware-level provide an anchor of trust for even the most advanced robots.

At electronica, visitors at the Infineon booth will witness Physical AI in action with a live robotics showcase performing a real-world shop floor use case. Furthermore, Infineon will demonstrate several robotics solutions on a system level, including an out-of-the-box solution that enables the precision and efficiency required to replicate the most dexterous part of a human body: a hand. Beyond that, the Infineon booth will provide insights into how edge intelligence enables a new generation of devices from industrial automation to smart home security, and everyday home appliances. The exhibit will also highlight how Infineon helps strengthen the security of intelligent and connected machines against evolving cyber threats in the quantum computing era.

Future mobility with software-defined electric vehicles.

In modern vehicles, AI increasingly takes the wheel. It interprets sensor data in driver assistance and automated driving functions, helps to extend driving range and battery longevity, and is expected to become part of the control loop, enabling cars to adapt motion control dynamically to road and energy conditions, for example. In addition, the software defined era allows connected vehicles to evolve over time, with new software from the cloud improving existing and adding new functions after the vehicle left the factory.

At electronica, Infineon will showcase how its semiconductor and system innovations support this transition and help turn software and AI into reliable vehicle behaviour. Visitors can explore core technologies for centralized vehicle architectures at the heart of this development and will see an example implementation in a premium car. They will see system-level innovation empowered by Infineon, for example for AI-enhanced battery management, integrated x-in-1 powertrain solutions and next-generation Ethernet connectivity that provides safe and secured high-speed communication between vehicle systems. Visitors will also get a first glimpse at Infineon’s next automotive microcontroller platform that will leverage the advantage of the open standard RISC-V to bring new levels of intelligence, scalability, safety and security to software-defined vehicles and other Physical AI systems.

Powering the future from renewable power generation to AI data centres. Artificial intelligence is driving a massive expansion of digital infrastructure, creating unprecedented demand for computing power and electricity. Meeting this demand sustainably depends on intelligent power systems that generate, convert, distribute and manage energy efficiently, from renewable energy sources and the electrical grid all the way to the processor core inside an AI server. At electronica, Infineon will demonstrate how its semiconductor innovations help build this foundation. Visitors will discover technologies that improve energy efficiency throughout the entire power chain, enabling AI data centres to deliver more computing performance while reducing energy losses. They will see solutions that optimise energy delivery from the grid to advanced AI processors, explore next-generation solid-state power distribution technologies, and learn how renewable energy and grid-forming battery storage systems can help keep future electricity networks stable and resilient. By combining power, control, sensing, connectivity and security technologies, Infineon helps connect the worlds of energy and intelligence to power the future.

The post Infineon at electronica 2026: Technology for the AI Era, From Data Centres Into Robots and Onto the Road appeared first on ELE Times.

Elektrobit, a global expert in automotive software, and Microchip Technology Inc., a broadline supplier of semiconductors committed to making innovative design easier through total system solutions, today announced a collaboration to simplify and accelerate AUTOSAR-based software development for automotive manufacturers and suppliers using Microchip automotive platforms.

As the automotive industry moves toward software-defined vehicles, OEMs and Tier 1 suppliers are under increasing pressure to shorten development cycles while maintaining safety, quality and flexibility. By combining Microchip’s automotive hardware platforms with Elektrobit’s AUTOSAR software, tooling and automation capabilities, the two companies are enabling customers to establish a production-ready software foundation faster and more efficiently.

The collaboration provides customers with access to pre-integrated AUTOSAR Microcontroller Abstraction Layer (MCAL) software based on Elektrobit’s market-proven EB tresos portfolio, helping development teams get started more quickly while reducing software integration complexity and project risk. The combined solution allows developers to focus more quickly on application development and vehicle differentiation rather than foundational software integration.

“By integrating Microchip automotive platforms with Elektrobit’s AUTOSAR expertise and tooling, we are helping customers streamline development and accelerate adoption of next-generation automotive architectures,” said Mark Reiten, Senior Corporate Vice President of Microchip’s licensing, memory products and intelligent compute business units. “Together, we are making it easier for developers to move from platform evaluation to production deployment.”

As part of the unified automation-first approach, Elektrobit applies integration-as-code to turn repeatable Classic AUTOSAR integration work into reusable, executable logic so teams can deliver faster and scale capacity through automation. This supports advanced workflow automation and lays the groundwork for future AI-assisted software configuration and development processes.

“Automotive manufacturers are seeking ways to accelerate software innovation while reducing development costs and complexity,” said Jaganathan Rajagopalan, Vice President, Head of Strategy and Portfolio Elektrobit. “Our collaboration with Microchip combines proven automotive software foundations with ready-to-use hardware support, enabling customers to bring software-defined vehicle innovations to market faster and with lower integration risk.”

The collaboration also expands support across a growing range of Microchip automotive platforms. Elektrobit has successfully enabled EB tresos AutoCore OS and EB tresos AutoCore Generic modules on Microchip’s SAMA5 series of microprocessors, making the solution available for immediate customer adoption, with support for additional platforms expected to follow as the collaboration evolves.

The companies plan to focus initial market activities on high-growth automotive segments in Asia, including the rapidly evolving two-wheeler market, while also supporting broader automotive opportunities across Asia and North America.

The post Elektrobit and Microchip Collaborate on Pre-Integrated AUTOSAR Solutions for Next-Generation Automotive Platforms appeared first on ELE Times.

Nuvoton Technology Corporation, a leading global semiconductor provider, proudly introduces the Nu-Link3-Pro, a ground breaking programmer and debugger specifically designed for embedded system developers. Nu-Link3-Pro is not only the world’s first programming debug analyser that integrates logic analysis functionality, but its powerful multi-protocol support and automated programming capabilities also deliver unparalleled development efficiency for product developers.

The core technology architecture of the Nu-Link3-Pro is based on USB Type-C Interface, significantly enhancing connection stability. For the NuMicro series microcontrollers, its ETM real-time instruction trace frequency is boosted to 110 MHz, allowing developers to capture system behaviour more accurately in high-frequency applications, thereby greatly optimizing real-time system debugging efficiency. Additionally, the Nu-Link3-Pro supports multiple voltage ranges, including 1.8V, 2.5V, 3.3V, and 5.0V, catering to various Hardware requirements.

The standout feature of the Nu-Link3-Pro is its built-in logic analysis function, enabling developers to perform digital signal capture and multi-protocol decoding without additional Hardware. This innovative design allows debugging, programming, and signal verification to be completed on a single platform, significantly reducing Hardware verification and debugging time.

In terms of programming capabilities, the Nu-Link3-Pro supports MicroPython, allowing developers to achieve fully customized automated offline programming logic by simply storing a custom MAIN.PY script on a Micro SD card. This flexibility adapts to different automated testing platforms or mass production environments, making the Nu-Link3-Pro a powerful tool for USB to multi-protocol bridging, offering diverse application scenarios and significant advantages.

For peripheral Interfaces, the Nu-Link3-Pro supports traditional SPI, I²C, UART, and RS-485 Interfaces, with added support for I3C and CAN FD Interfaces, meeting the big data frame development needs of automotive and industrial applications. These rich peripheral options make the Nu-Link3-Pro an essential tool for developers tackling complex embedded systems.

Additionally, as product security awareness continues to grow, Nu-Link3-Pro also offers a value-added Secure Provisioning service. The private key is generated within Nu-Link3-Pro and securely stored in a hardware Key Store, with a hardware encryption/decryption engine handling certificate issuance and encrypted programming to ensure the private key never leaves the device. These capabilities can be customized according to the target chip and application requirements, and Nuvoton can provide project assessment and technical support.

The post Nuvoton Technology Launches Nu-Link3-Pro: The All-in-One Multifunctional Tool for Embedded Developers appeared first on ELE Times.

So I made this 3S Balance charger that uses three TP4056 modules and three 230VAC to 5V DC modules so that they can work together and charge eatch string of cells individually, this makes it so that every time you charge your battery you make sure that it will be balanced once fully charged and no cells can stop charging before they are fully charged like with a normal chargers. And the best part is this is scaleable to how many strings you want even a 100s1p pack. Every module have to have an personal galvanically isolated power source so if you don't have 5V power supplies you can use three phone adapters instead using the usb port. It's very important that the power supplies are isolated from eatch other, you can't use one power source for all three modules. I don't remember exactly why but if i am not mistaken the GND is chared by the input and output making it impossible to series connect the output if you parallel the input making a shortcurcuit. submitted by /u/Whyjustwhydothat [link] [comments]

XMax Inc of Commerce, CA, USA (formerly Nova LifeStyle Inc) — which designs, sources and distributes contemporary furniture but has diversified to also developing and providing artificial intelligence software and platform-based services — has agreed to acquire Hexa Creation Inc, a US-based company focused on 1200V vertical gallium nitride (GaN) power semiconductor technology for AI data-center power infrastructure and other high-voltage applications...

A desktop satellite never leaves the desk, but it behaves as if it were about to launch. The prototype collects and logs environmental and motion data, exactly as it would on a suborbital flight. The result is a compact electronic platform that shows how far a sensing system can be shrunk without losing any functions.

The heart of the system is an ESP32-C3 Mini, which acts as the main controller. Two sensors are entrusted to it: a BME680 for temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure and gas resistance, and a BMI323 that adds a 3-axis accelerometer and gyroscope. The sensors talk to the ESP32 over an I²C interface, a choice that keeps the number of wires low and simplifies the wiring.

Record-breaking weight and size

The numbers tell the story of the project’s philosophy well. The prototype weighs 21 grams, below the initial target of 30 grams. Its dimensions are 28 × 28 × 33 mm, a volume that fits in the palm of a hand. To reach this result, connectors, PCB material, wiring and mechanical structure were all reduced, while the sensing and computing functions were kept intact.

Every gram saved counts, because in a future real launch weight translates directly into cost and complexity. Miniaturisation is not just an aesthetic matter: it is proof that a complete telemetry system can fit in a minimal volume.

Dashboard and flight data management

A software dashboard monitors and stores the measurements collected by the sensors. The system organises the recorded flight data into files that can be viewed, downloaded or deleted. This structure makes it possible to analyse the readings after a test session, without having to keep the satellite connected to a computer during acquisition.

The workflow is simple: start the collection, the satellite logs the data, then download the files for analysis. Having a dashboard also makes the system suitable for anyone who wants to experiment with long acquisitions or with changing conditions.

• ESP32-C3 Mini as the main controller
• BME680 for temperature, humidity, pressure and gas
• BMI323 for acceleration and rotational motion
• I²C bus to connect the sensors to the controller
• Software dashboard to monitor and archive the data

The project shows how an electronics platform inspired by satellites can be built from easily available components. Those who want to dig deeper can look at the maker’s site, where the details of the system are available. The development board used is a compact solution for IoT projects, suitable for anyone who wants to replicate the prototype or start from a similar base.

The desktop satellite is not meant for space, but to prepare the ground for those who will go there. The combination of environmental and inertial sensors covers the basic needs of a flight experiment: pressure, temperature, humidity, gas, acceleration and rotation. At 21 grams, the system leaves room for larger payloads or bigger batteries in a possible future launch.

Source: https://circuitdigest.com/news/barely-21-grams-this-satellite-prototype-tracks-the-environment

Related products

• Mini ESP32-C3 module

The post A Desktop Satellite with the ESP32-C3: 21 Grams of Telemetry appeared first on Open Electronics.

I made a Power supply board to get more experience with ecad. It connects directly to 230VAC main via the plug on the bottom left. The plugs on the right output 48/24/12/5/3.3/1.6V DC with a small webinterface via ESP32-S2 for switching and checking voltage and current. PCB & schematic files are avalable here (Altium files): https://github.com/Timo-Hauser/POWERPANEL-HW I will use the PCB in my Mini Rack with my Raspberry Pi inside. I cheated a bit by stepping down the ac with a LRS-150-24 module so its DC-DC only. I would love to get some feedback on the Schematics as well as the PCB layout. I choose the parts mainly based on availability at JLCPCB and tried to avoid any tht parts. I'm aware I could buy this premade for cheaper but it was fun so far. Rail Source Rated 24 V Mean Well LRS-150-24 brick, through a TPS16630 eFuse 2.5 A 48 V LM5156H boost from the 24 V bus 1 A 12 V LMR51450 buck 3 A 12 V fan LMR51450 buck, feeds 4 × 4-pin PWM fan headers 3 A 5 V LMR51450 buck, TPS2557 current-limited terminal switch 3 A 3V3 LMR51450 buck 2 A 1V6 buck from 5 V 1 A Also for those that care I did work with AI on the project. submitted by /u/Timo-Hauser [link] [comments]

Sometimes thinking like a geek pays off. Especially when you’re dealing with overheated Judge Judy fanatics.

A recurring problem at the transmitter site of the television station I worked at was the cause of no small amount of labor and expense. Periodically the building’s cooling system failed, which is a bit of an emergency during hot weather, especially as it could cause the transmitter to overheat and shut down. Lots of Judge Judy fans out there wouldn’t be happy. And they could be brutal with their criticism.

Do you have a memorable experience solving an engineering problem at work or in your spare time? Tell us your Tale

The HVAC system used a two-stage heat exchanger, with three fans. The fans draw air past the hot condenser coils and fins and exhaust the heated air out of the top of the unit. When the cooling load is light, the outer two fans run, and the center fan is turned off. When the load is heavy, or the outside air temperature is high, all three fans run.

Every year or so the center motor would burn out, shorting one phase of 480V to the motor’s case. Fortunately, the transmitter site was wired as 480 volts delta. A delta system can withstand a short of a single phase to ground, something a wye system cannot do. As Figure 1 shows, the main electrical panel at the site had lamps from each phase to ground. If a phase was shorted, its lamp would go out and we’d know we had a problem.

Figure 1 A delta system can withstand a short of a single phase to ground, something a wye system cannot do.

The cause of the burnouts was well-known. When the HVAC system has only two fans running, the two outer fans are pulling air not only through the fins, but down through the center fan as well (Figure 2). This causes the idle motor and fan to run backwards as the air flow is reversed. The fan could get up a pretty good head of steam in a short time.

Figure 2 This HVAC system doesn’t include a damper.

Then, when the center motor is called to start, it has more than its usual start-up inertia to overcome, and in fighting the reversed magnetic field, produces a high back EMF. This increases the voltage stress across the motor’s windings as well as the current through them. After enough of this abuse, one of the windings will give up the ghost and short to the motor’s case.

Over the years we replaced a good number of motors, before and during my time at the station. On one of these occasions, I was up on the roof with our HVAC contractor, discussing the problem (and the Red Sox, as this was Boston and such conversation is mandatory). One thought was to install sheet-metal walls to divide the interior into thirds, isolating the center section, but this was not at all an easy project.

Then my inner geek kicked in. Just as a carpenter might think there’s no problem that can’t be solved with a good sized hammer and nails, or a handyman with duct tape, I tend to think in terms of electronics. So it occurred to me that what we needed was an “air-diode.” Let the air flow up and out, but not down and in.

Believe me, I felt like an idiot a moment later when I realized that such a thing already exists in a very simple device: a damper. It’s just a group of hinged sheet metal plates that, when mounted horizontally, will open when the fan is blowing and allow air to flow, and close via gravity when the fan is not blowing, blocking the air flow (Figure 3). Lucky for me our HVAC man hadn’t thought of it either, so I didn’t feel so bad. And he agreed that it was a good idea. He got a damper of the right size, installed it, and never had to return to replace a burned out motor again.

Figure 3 This HVAC system includes a damper, which can be either open or closed.

Incidentally, I’ve never understood the reasoning behind the wide-open cavity in the fan units. Drawing outside air down through the idle fan means an equivalent amount of air is not being drawn through the fins, which greatly reduces cooling efficiency. I know this from unfortunate experience, when I once accidentally left an access panel open on a heat exchanger (at a different TV station). The result was an overheated and shut down TV transmitter (see earlier mention of Judge Judy fans).

Robert Yankowitz retired as Chief Engineer at a television station in Boston, Massachusetts, where he had worked for 23 years.  Prior to that, he worked for 15 years at a station in Providence, Rhode Island.

Related Content

• Zig-zag transformers
• Back EMF and electric motors: From fundamentals to real-world applications
• Analog TV transmitter—analog problem
• TV transmitter trouble

The post Not all diodes use electrons appeared first on EDN.

A speedier LAN “freeway” is of no benefit if “vehicles” on it are still molasses slow. Fortunately, this engineer’s curiosity is matched by upgrades both available used and already in inventory.

As part of my pending infrastructure upgrade, one of the key LAN clients that I want to make sure is accessible as speedily as possible, as well as generally performing as optimally as possible, is my longstanding-use quad-HDD QNAP TS-453Be NAS:

The TS-453Be has dual integrated 1 GbE wired interfaces, only one of which I’m currently using due to my current switch’s available port count limitations.

That said, I’ve long been tempted to add an active splitter to the mix, as the NAS’s Linux O/S foundation supports two different multi-LAN interface merging options: specialized Port Trunking, i.e., LACP (Link Aggregation Control Protocol), which necessitates the use of a high-end managed switch, and the more general-purpose SMB Multichannel alternative approach.

However, since I was planning on more broadly moving to a primary switch that included multiple 10G SFP+ cages, each optionally configurable as a 10 GbE port via an Ethernet adapter module, I decided to instead “go for the gusto” and use a PCIe add-in board to upgrade the TS-453Be to use a single 10 GbE interface. QNAP sells such a card, the QXG10G1T, which has a $139 MSRP although, due to supply constraints, many retailers currently sell it for $200 or more (AQUANTIA, the board’s network controller supplier, was acquired by Marvell seven years ago).

Bracket barrier

Instead, however, and after stumbling across an encouraging Reddit thread, I (at least initially) decided to alternatively go with a much less expensive generic AQUANTIA AQC107-based add-in card sourced from Walmart’s website.

The Reddit thread discussion suggested that there was no difference between ones like it and the pricier branded card, at least from a software driver standpoint. QNAP hadn’t hard-coded a specific identifier code into the card’s firmware, for example, and therefore hadn’t customized the Linux build it was using to recognize only that code as valid. This was a refreshing change from the usual norm taken by some SFP-supportive networking equipment suppliers, for example.

But when the board arrived, I realized that I still couldn’t let QNAP off the “proprietary” hook scot-free. The earlier QXG10G1T stock photos showed the board with only its preinstalled low-profile bracket, variants of which I’d also come across in the past with low-profile graphics cards, for example.

 

The QNAP product page also mentioned the inclusion of a full-height conventional bracket. And it further referenced an also-bundled “specialized (for selected QNAP NAS) bracket”, photos of all of which I happened to find included with a used-board eBay listing I came across.

The latter bracket, unfortunately, is the one that the QNAP TS-453Be calls for. Unsurprisingly, it was not included with the generic AQC107-based add-in card I’d bought, or any other I could find.

I also couldn’t find any means of purchasing the proprietary flat low-profile bracket from QNAP directly. Perhaps obviously, I assume that the company would prefer that I instead buy the entire kit from it.

Investigation prior to capitulation

I could hack away at the standard low-profile bracket to jerry-rig it into place, as I belatedly realized upon re-read that the original Reddit thread originator had done (I’d originally misinterpreted that he’d only had the full-height bracket in his possession). Or, I suppose, I could 3D-print one. What I confess I just ended up doing instead was bailing and buying that used board I’d found on eBay, which thankfully works fine and still saved me a notable amount of coin versus the MSRP, not to mention the subsequent (and current) further marked-up prices (the screenshot still reports 1 GbE connectivity because of the legacy switch on the other cable end).

I’ve kept the generic add-in card, too, for use in adding 10 GbE support to future Macs, Hackintoshes and/or PCs, along with any more amenable NASs that might come into my possession in the future. And, prior to settling on the used QNAP-branded card, I temporarily installed the generic one in the NAS after first removing its mounting bracket entirely, to personally confirm what I’d already read re its claimed software compatibility.

Here’s where the add-in card goes.

Cue irony; the dimple on the included standard low-profile bracket’s 90° bent end exactly matches the location of the drilled hole in the (flat) cover plate, suggestive of a likely chassis location match were I to drill a hole at the dimple, too. The problem, of course, is that even if I could cleanly un-bend that end, it’d still protrude beyond the remainder of the bracket’s edge. It wouldn’t fit in the chassis unless I also hacksawed or otherwise dealt with the bracket excess.

Absent the bracket, the add-in card is fully functional, albeit tenuously so from a mechanical stability (therefore also electrical connectivity) perspective.

The only quirk I came across, which ironically also affects the QNAP-branded board, is that the front panel LED only activity-illuminates when the integrated 1 GbE facilities are in use, not those of the 10 GbE add-in card.

Other networking options

What about the NAS’s five integrated USB 3.2 Gen 1 (5 Gbps) ports (one front, four back)? Instead of using a full-blown add-in card, could I instead connect up one or even a few (for multi-LAN interface merging purposes) 2.5 GbE or 5 GbE USB adapters? Yes, it turns out, but with some qualifiers. QNAP once sold a branded 5 GbE adapter, the QNA-UC5G1T, based on an AQUANTIA-now-Marvell AQC111U controller.

But per the QNAP website, it’s discontinued, with retailer stock also depleted. It also only works with Intel x86-based QNAP NASs, not Arm-based models such as my TS-231K and TS-328 (as a backup plan, they both at least also have dual integrated 1 GbE ports). There’s no O/S support for Port Trunking multi-port merging, only for SMB Multichannel. And the only third-party AQC111U-based adapters I’ve come across, from Sabrent, Startech and TRENDnet, are also discontinued.

Things are a bit more encouraging on the 2.5 GbE front, however. QNAP doesn’t (and as far as I can tell, never did) sell a branded one, but I’ve successfully tested several third-party adapters based on Realtek RTL8156 network controllers (LAN-disconnected in the following image, albeit still system-recognized, which was my point in including the screenshot in the first place).

Again, the compatibility is x86-only; whatever Arm-compiled Linux build QNAP is using doesn’t seem to bundle the necessary driver support. And per Reddit chatter, it seems to be somewhat hit-and-miss as to whether a given adapter can be reliably powered from a given NAS directly versus requiring a powered-hub intermediary. But for those of you out there with x86-based NASs (or potentially even Arm-based NASs from other manufacturers using other operating system foundations) that don’t have add-in card support, it’s potentially better than nothing.

Volatile and nonvolatile memory enhancements

Another TS-453Be update I’ve recently done wasn’t motivated by network upgrades, per se. Instead, it was predominantly fueled by fundamental curiosity. As I’d mentioned back in late 2020, the NAS arrived with 2 GBytes of DDR3 SDRAM installed as a single SoDIMM, which I promptly updated to 8 GBytes total, albeit not at the highest possible hardware-supported speed bin given that I’d used two spare SoDIMMs I already had on-hand versus buying others.

I mentioned at the time that “some users report being able to run up to 16 GBytes total, but success is seemingly hit-and-miss, as is longevity, and since I don’t want to deal with stored data corruption I “passed” on this experiment.” Well, even though the Celeron J3455 isn’t (officially, at least) Windows 11-compatible, not to mention the lack of a system TPM (trusted platform module), Microsoft has now extended Windows 10 support for a second straight year, so far.

I suspect this may not be the final end-of support postponement, considering stubbornly high replacement-system building block prices. I’m already running Roon Server using Docker, with other containerized apps possible in the future. And with support extended, I may put virtualized Win10 back on the TS-453Be, too. My earlier test-drive had been successful albeit slow; I later uninstalled it due to the sizeable necessary HDD “footprint”. Doubling onboard memory should help performance in all these cases, due to resultant decreased virtual memory thrash. So while the NAS was open, I also dropped two 8 GByte SoDIMMs in. All’s stable so far, I’m happy to say.

And speaking of overall performance, while the four HDDs inside the NAS are enterprise 7,200 RPM variants (Hitachi Global Storage Technologies’, now Western Digital’s, Ultrastar 7K4000 HUS724040ALE640), they are HDDs. Even configured as RAID 5, I suspect their inherent random access latencies will become increasingly intolerable once the network-access latency between them and the LAN client(s) they’re communicating with are diminished as potential bottlenecks.

To wit, I have another QNAP add-in card on order, which I plan to at least temporarily in-system exchange for the currently installed QXG10G1T. It’s the QM2-2P10G1TB, which also comes with three bracket options (at least I hope this used one does, otherwise I’ll ship it back posthaste).

Versus the QM2-2P-244A I’d mentioned back in late 2020, this one includes support for dual M.2 NVMe SSDs and 10 GbE connectivity, as noted in the following conceptual cutaway.

To clarify upfront, I won’t be using the flash memory modules as “raw” storage. Instead, I’ll leverage QTier to harness them as a read/write cache. You can tell that the associated QNAP technology page is dated because it claims you can “take advantage of declining SSD prices.” Fortunately, I still have a few M.2 NVMe spares lying around from the pre-constraint days.

To be clear upfront, I’m not expecting anything dramatic improvement-wise from a performance perspective. Although the add-in card has a PCIe Gen3 x8 interface, the NAS connector I’ll be plugging it into only implements PCIe Gen2 x2, traffic-shared between the network controller and two SSDs, all factors leading to yet another potential bottleneck. Still, the comparative results should be interesting.

Once I get both the QNAP NAS and its supportive LAN infrastructure upgraded, I’ll run some benchmark tests and report back the results. Until then, I as-always welcome your thoughts in the comments on what I’ve discussed thus far!

—Brian Dipert is the associate editor, as well as a contributing editor, at EDN.

Related Content

• The multi-gig migration: Motivations and implementations
• An x86 foundation supports robust NAS virtualization
• SFP: Add-in module delivers diminutive performance, flexibility
• USB: Deciphering the signaling, connector, and power delivery differences
• NAS successors add notable features

The post NAS upgrades: Proprietary lockouts and surmounts appeared first on EDN.

A buzzer module emits a sound to signal a danger or the end of a set time. It also serves to confirm a command. There are two types: passive, such as the KY-006 and Ks0019, and active, such as the KY-012 and Ks0018. AdriRobot tested them with an Arduino UNO, with a Multi Test Shield and with the micro:bit board.

Active and passive buzzer module: the difference

The buzzer is an audio signalling device. It can be mechanical, electromechanical or piezoelectric. In the active module there is an internal oscillator: you just power it and the sound starts. The passive module has none, so the control circuit must supply it with a square wave between 2 and 5 kHz.

The piezoelectric buzzer is based on a ceramic disc with a metallic layer. It is robust and cheap. That is why it is used for narrow-band alarm signals, for example in household appliances and in medical technology. Electromagnetic buzzers, on the other hand, have a metal diaphragm set vibrating by an electromagnetic circuit, with the electronics already integrated.

The four modules compared

The KY-006 and KY-012 have the same circuit, made up of a connector and the buzzer. Only the type of buzzer changes, passive in the first and active in the second. Of the connector only GND and signal are used, so the current comes from the Arduino pin. Each module also measures 15 × 19 × 9 mm and weighs 2.4 g.

The Keyestudio Ks0018 (active) and Ks0019 (passive) modules are more elaborate. An NPN S8050 transistor acts as a switch between the control pin and the buzzer. There are two resistors: one on the base and one in series with the power supply. This way the control pin only supplies the current for the transistor. The connector therefore has three connections: GND, signal and 3.3 or 5 V power. Finally, these modules measure 30 × 20 × 10 mm and weigh 3 g.

Testing with Arduino: square wave and tone()

To test a passive module you need an Arduino UNO, some Dupont jumpers and the KY-006 or the Ks0019. In the first sketch digital pin 3 goes from high to low with short pauses. This way the square wave is built by hand. Alternatively you use tone(pin, frequency, duration), which generates a square wave with a 50% duty cycle.

The command also produces only one tone at a time. If another pin is already playing, the call has no effect, while on the same pin it changes the frequency. To stop the sound you use noTone(pin). In AdriRobot’s example the buzzer sounds at 500 Hz and at 1000 Hz for one second each. Then it stays silent for five seconds.

The active module is simpler. With the KY-012 or Ks0018 a signal pin at high level makes the buzzer sound. At low level it stops it.

Multi Test Shield and micro:bit

The Multi Test Shield is a shield built by AdriRobot, compatible with the Arduino UNO R3. It is used to test the sensors of the 37-in-1 kit. The KY-012 is inserted on the JP2 connector. This way the sketch alternates sound and silence and shows the various phases on a small OLED display.

The Ks0018 and Ks0019 modules can also be connected to a micro:bit board. You need the Keyestudio Micro:bit Sensor V2 shield and three female-female Dupont cables. The program is also written with the MakeCode block editor and saved directly onto the board.

Where to find the modules

The individual modules are in the catalogue: the passive buzzer module KY-006 and the active buzzer module KY-012. Both are also part of the box of 37 sensors for Arduino, Raspberry Pi and robotics.

Source: the original article by AdriRobot includes the complete sketches, the MakeCode programs and other examples of buzzer use in projects.

Related products

• Passive Buzzer Module, 3.5V to 5.5V Operating Voltage
• Active Buzzer Module with 3.5V to 5.5V Operating Voltage
• Box of 37 sensors for Arduino/Raspberry Pi/robotics

The post Active and passive buzzer modules: KY-006 and KY-012 with Arduino appeared first on Open Electronics.