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Since lighting is no longer confined to a simple on-and-off function, ams OSRAM GmbH of Premstätten, Austria and Munich, Germany says that, with advances like pixelated lighting, its new EVIYOS Shape (available now) gives it the power to create innovative tailored scenarios...

For fourth-quarter 2023, epitaxial deposition and process equipment maker Veeco Instruments Inc of Plainview, NY, USA has reported revenue of $182.1m, down 1% on $184.8m last quarter but up 5% on $173.9m a year ago, and well above the midpoint of both early November’s original guidance of $165–185m and mid-January’s revised guidance of $175–185m...

High-bandwidth memory (HBM) is again in the limelight. At GTC 2025, held in San Jose, California, from 17 to 21 March, SK hynix displayed its 12-high HBM3E devices for artificial intelligence (AI) servers. The Korean memory maker also showcased a model of its 12-high HBM4, currently under development, claiming that it’s now completing the preparatory works for large-scale production of the 12-high HBM4 in the second half of 2025.

Micron, another leading memory supplier, is signaling strong demand for its HBM chips in AI and high-performance computing (HPC) applications. Micron’s chief business officer, Sumit Sadana, told Reuters that all of Micron’s HBM chips are sold out for the calendar year 2025.

Figure 1 HBM is creating a new “near memory” space between cache and main memory. Source: IDTechEx

HBM—essentially a 3D structure of vertically stacked DRAM dies on top of a logic die—relies on advanced packaging technologies like through silicon vias (TSVs) while using a silicon interposer for interconnection with the processor. It’s proving highly suitable in parallel compute environments such as HPC and AI workloads.

That’s because it can handle multiple memory requests simultaneously from various cores in GPUs and AI accelerators to facilitate parallel workload processing. In fact, HBM has become the main venue for overcoming memory bottlenecks in data-intensive HPC and AI workloads. Otherwise, these memory bottlenecks lead to underutilization of AI processors.

What’s also pivotal about HBM devices is their continued development to improve AI accelerator performance. For instance, the current generation HBM3E devices use thermal compression with micro-bumps and underfills to stack DRAM dies. Next, HBM makers like Micron, Samsung and SK hynix are transitioning toward HBM4 devices, which employ advanced packaging technologies such as copper-copper hybrid bonding to increase input/outputs, lower power consumption, improve heat dissipation, and reduce electrode dimensions.

Market research firm IDTechEx’s report “Hardware for HPC, Data Centers, and AI 2025-2035: Technologies, Markets, Forecasts” assesses the key developments and trends in HBM devices serving AI and HPC workloads. It also projects that compared to 2024, the unit sales of HBM are forecast to increase 15-fold by 2035.

Figure 2 The booming AI and HPC hardware is forecast to increase HBM sales 15-fold by 2035. Source: IDTechEx

HBM was a prominent technology highlight in 2024 for its ability to overcome the memory wall for AI processors. With the emergence of HBM4 memory devices, that trend is likely to continue in 2025 and beyond.

Related Content

• HBM Flourishes, But HMC Lives
• AI boom and the politics of HBM memory chips
• Memory Bottlenecks: Overcoming a Common AI Problem
• HBM memory chips: The unsung hero of the AI revolution
• High-bandwidth memory (HBM) options for demanding compute

The post HBM memory and AI processors: Happy together appeared first on EDN.

A new joint venture between Welsh Government, South Wales-based Compound Semiconductor Applications (CSA) Catapult, and electronic design automation (EDA) software provider Cadence Design Systems Inc of San Jose, CA, USA (whose more than 13,000 staff generated $4.6bn in revenue in fiscal-year 2024) is to address long-term skills needs within the semiconductor design sector and support the industry’s growth by providing critical design services to SMEs and scale-up companies across the UK...

POET Technologies Inc of Toronto, Ontario, Canada — designer and developer of the POET Optical Interposer, photonic integrated circuits (PICs) and light sources for the hyperscale data-center, telecom and artificial intelligence (AI) markets — has fulfilled orders from three global customers for samples of its advanced optical transmit engines...

The first photo is a cross section from a 12pF 3kV capacitor along it's width. The second photo is that same capacitor along it's length. The third photo is of a 47uF capacitor along it width, but with the layers in the wrong direction giving this damascus like texture. The fourth and fifth photo is this same capacitor along the width (the same orientation as the first photo). Unfortunately, not much can be seen here. I assume that the capacitor plates are too thin and densely packed for my microscope. The sixt photo is of a (pretty bad) crimp terminal. It's just a random terminal I had laying around and I didn't know which cable size and crimping die I had to use for it. The last photo is a cross section of a piece of solder wire, clearly showing its flux core within. I used it to hold the crimped terminal in place while the epoxy was hardening. That's why the crimp terminal can be seen behind it. I still need to get vacuum pump to get rid of the air bubbles, and I also used very cheap epoxy so the clarity of it is not great. But for some first experiments, I think I can call it a success. Next up, I would like to capture some PCB details such as burried and capped via's. submitted by /u/0x4A47 [link] [comments]

I ran across this today for $5. I believe it is a PNP Germanium power transistor. Along with mica insulators it has a note that looks original. It reads “2N278 transistors are not recommended for replacement in Delco built car radios.” Max Voltage: 45VCEO, 50VCBO. Max Current: 15 Amp. Dissipation: 170 watt. Package: TO-36. That is a lot higher dissipation spec than I expected. submitted by /u/Alive-Bid1024 [link] [comments]

My buddy dead bugged a QFN, he is so much more patient than I am. Apparently the engineer connected the belly pad to the wrong voltage submitted by /u/robs2287 [link] [comments]

submitted by /u/Rdp616 [link] [comments]

submitted by /u/AutoModerator
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But ıt burned because ı forgot to add rezistors a and b submitted by /u/Careful-Rich9823 [link] [comments]

Wire soldering is a fundamental technique in electronics and electrical engineering that involves joining two or more metal wires using a filler metal, known as solder. This process ensures a strong, conductive, and durable connection between components. Soldering is widely used in circuit board assembly, electrical wiring, and microelectronics, offering a reliable means of creating robust electrical and mechanical bonds.

What is Wire Soldering?

Wire soldering is a method of joining electrical wires and components by melting a filler metal (solder) at the joint. The solder, typically composed of a lead-tin alloy or a lead-free alternative, melts at a lower temperature than the workpieces, allowing it to flow and solidify, creating a permanent bond. The process ensures excellent electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, making it essential in various industrial and DIY applications.

How Wire Soldering Works

Wire soldering works on the principle of wetting and capillary action. Temperature control plays a critical role, as solder melts at specific temperatures, typically 180–200°C for tin-lead solder and 217°C for lead-free solder. Proper heat application ensures strong joints and prevents damage to sensitive electronic components. The use of flux is essential in wire soldering, as it removes oxidation and improves adhesion by enhancing the flow of solder and preventing contaminants from interfering with the bond. Surface preparation is another crucial factor, as clean wire surfaces result in stronger solder joints. Any contaminants like oxidation or dirt can weaken the bond and should be removed before soldering. Additionally, the cooling rate must be managed properly. Gradual cooling prevents joint brittleness and ensures a reliable bond, whereas sudden cooling may introduce stress and weak points in the joint.

Wire Soldering Process

The wire soldering process consists of several key steps to ensure a high-quality joint. The first step is preparation, where essential tools such as a soldering iron, solder wire, flux, helping hands or clamps, and wire strippers are gathered. The wire surfaces must be cleaned with alcohol or a wire brush to remove oxidation and dirt, and flux should be applied to improve solder flow and reduce oxidation.

The next step is heating the joint. The soldering iron must be heated to the required temperature, typically between 300–400°C depending on the type of solder being used. The iron tip should be placed in contact with both wires to ensure even heating before applying solder. Once the joint reaches the correct temperature, solder is applied. The molten solder should flow into the joint via capillary action, forming a strong bond. The soldering process should be completed quickly to prevent excessive heat damage to components. The final step is cooling and inspection. The joint must be allowed to cool naturally without disturbance to maintain structural integrity. A visual and mechanical inspection should be performed to ensure proper bonding and electrical continuity.

Wire Soldering Uses & Applications

Wire soldering finds applications in various industries due to its reliability and efficiency. In the electronics and PCB assembly sector, soldering is used for mounting components on printed circuit boards (PCBs) and is essential in assembling microelectronics and integrated circuits. In the automotive industry, it is widely employed in vehicle wiring, sensors, and electronic control modules, ensuring durable electrical connections resistant to vibrations and environmental stress. The aerospace and defense sectors also rely heavily on wire soldering, particularly in avionics, satellite electronics, and military-grade circuit assemblies. High-reliability soldering techniques are required to withstand extreme environments.

Beyond these industries, wire soldering is commonly used in home electrical repairs, such as fixing household wiring, power cords, and electrical appliances. It provides secure and long-lasting connections in low-voltage circuits. Additionally, industrial manufacturing relies on wire soldering for robotics, automation systems, and power distribution modules, ensuring robust and long-lasting connections for heavy-duty machinery.

Wire Soldering Advantages

Wire soldering offers multiple benefits, making it a preferred method for electrical connections. One of the primary advantages is strong electrical conductivity, as it provides minimal resistance and efficient signal transmission in electronic circuits. It also ensures reliable mechanical strength, offering durable joints that withstand mechanical stress and vibrations. Wire soldering allows for compact and lightweight connections, enabling miniaturization of electronic components, which is ideal for modern gadgets and compact devices. Another key advantage is cost-effectiveness and efficiency, as it requires minimal tools and materials, making it an economical and accessible solution. The process is also quick and versatile, with applications spanning from delicate electronics to heavy-duty electrical work.

Wire Soldering Disadvantages

Despite its advantages, wire soldering has some limitations. One of the main drawbacks is temperature sensitivity. Overheating can damage sensitive components, requiring careful temperature control to avoid such issues. Another potential issue is weak joints. Cold solder joints or insufficient flux application can lead to poor connectivity and reliability problems over time. Additionally, lead-based solder emits toxic fumes, posing health risks. Proper ventilation and safety precautions, such as using fume extractors and protective equipment, are necessary. Lastly, solder joints provide limited structural support. They are not mechanically strong enough for high-load applications and may require additional reinforcement to ensure durability in certain use cases.

Conclusion

Wire soldering remains an indispensable technique in electronics, automotive, aerospace, and industrial applications. By understanding its principles, process, advantages, and limitations, engineers and technicians can optimize soldering quality for reliable electrical connections. With advancements in lead-free soldering and automated soldering technologies, the future of wire soldering continues to evolve, ensuring improved safety, efficiency, and performance in electrical and electronic manufacturing.

The post Understanding Wire Soldering: Definition, Process, Working, Uses & Advantages appeared first on ELE Times.

Neuromorphic computing represents a groundbreaking paradigm shift in computing, designed to replicate the structure and functionality of biological neural networks. Traditional Von Neumann architectures suffer from inefficiencies due to the separation of memory and processing units, leading to bottlenecks in handling AI and real-time workloads. Neuromorphic chips address these challenges through event-driven computation, parallel processing, and biologically inspired synaptic plasticity. Companies such as Intel, IBM, BrainChip, and SynSense are spearheading the development of these chips, promising enhanced AI acceleration, real-time data processing, and ultra-low power consumption. This article explores the fundamental principles, architectural advancements, diverse applications, industry trends, and future prospects of neuromorphic computing.

Principles of Neuromorphic Computing

Neuromorphic computing is grounded in the principles of spiking neural networks (SNNs) and synaptic plasticity, enabling energy-efficient and event-driven information processing. Unlike traditional deep learning architectures that rely on dense matrix multiplications, SNNs leverage discrete electrical impulses (spikes) for data transmission. This asynchronous operation ensures that computations occur only when necessary, significantly reducing energy consumption. Another core principle is in-memory processing, where neuromorphic chips integrate memory and computation units to eliminate data transfer bottlenecks, a limitation of conventional architectures.

Adaptive learning mechanisms further distinguish neuromorphic chips from traditional AI accelerators. Inspired by Hebbian learning and long-term potentiation, these chips modify synaptic weights dynamically based on data patterns, mirroring human cognitive processes. Additionally, neuromorphic architectures exhibit massive parallelism, as thousands or even millions of artificial neurons and synapses operate simultaneously. This makes them ideal for real-time, low-latency AI inference applications in power-constrained environments such as edge devices and wearables.

Architectures of Neuromorphic Chips

Neuromorphic chip architectures vary widely, encompassing digital, analog, and hybrid designs. Digital neuromorphic processors, such as Intel’s Loihi 2, leverage asynchronous spike-based processing with over one million programmable neurons and hierarchical synaptic plasticity mechanisms. Loihi 2 features optimized learning rules, improved interconnectivity, and enhanced support for complex AI workloads, making it a leading candidate for next-generation AI acceleration.

BrainChip’s Akida platform, another prominent digital neuromorphic processor, is tailored for ultra-low power AI inference at the edge. It employs event-based processing, leveraging hierarchical temporal memory (HTM) principles to achieve highly efficient pattern recognition. The Akida chip is designed to optimize convolutional neural network (CNN) inference while maintaining minimal power consumption, making it suitable for applications such as smart surveillance, autonomous systems, and health monitoring.

Analog and mixed-signal neuromorphic chips offer even greater efficiency by utilizing physical transistor properties to mimic neuronal activity. IBM’s TrueNorth, a hybrid digital-analog neuromorphic system, incorporates one million neurons and 256 million synapses, enabling large-scale SNN processing with extremely low power consumption. Memristor-based neuromorphic architectures, such as those under development at MIT and HP, integrate non-volatile resistive RAM (RRAM) elements to implement synaptic weights directly in hardware, further reducing energy overheads.

Another emerging approach is 3D neuromorphic architectures, where stacked layers of artificial neurons are fabricated to enhance computational density and minimize interconnect delays. Researchers at ETH Zurich and Stanford University are exploring hybrid 3D CMOS-memristor designs to enable brain-scale neuromorphic computing, opening new frontiers in AI efficiency and scalability.

Applications of Neuromorphic Chips

Neuromorphic computing has transformative applications across diverse sectors, revolutionizing AI-driven decision-making, robotics, medical diagnostics, and edge intelligence.

Edge AI and IoT

Neuromorphic chips excel in ultra-low power AI inference, making them ideal for always-on smart sensors, real-time environmental monitoring, and security surveillance. They enable real-time AI processing in IoT devices, allowing predictive maintenance, autonomous energy management, and adaptive user interfaces in smart homes and industrial automation.

Robotics and Autonomous Systems

Neuromorphic processors are redefining robotics by enabling real-time, low-latency decision-making. Their ability to process sensory inputs dynamically makes them well-suited for applications in humanoid robots, collaborative automation, and autonomous vehicles. For instance, neuromorphic vision sensors enhance object detection and navigation by replicating biological vision processing, enabling real-time adaptation in self-driving cars and drones.

Healthcare and Biomedicine

In healthcare, neuromorphic chips power advanced neural interfaces, brain-machine interaction (BMI) systems, and real-time biomedical signal processing. They facilitate ultra-fast EEG and ECG analysis, enabling rapid diagnosis of neurological disorders such as epilepsy and Parkinson’s disease. Additionally, neuromorphic AI enhances medical imaging, assisting in early disease detection with significantly reduced computational overhead.

Cybersecurity and AI at the Edge

The adaptive learning capabilities of neuromorphic chips make them well-suited for AI-driven cybersecurity solutions. Their ability to detect anomalous patterns in real-time enhances intrusion detection systems (IDS) and fraud prevention mechanisms. Moreover, neuromorphic architectures support biometric authentication technologies, such as facial recognition and voice-based identity verification, ensuring energy-efficient, secure access control solutions.

Industry Insights and Market Trends

The neuromorphic computing landscape is evolving rapidly, with significant investments from semiconductor giants, startups, and government agencies.

Key Players and Research Initiatives

Intel has established the Neuromorphic Research Community (INRC) to accelerate the adoption of Loihi-based computing platforms. IBM continues to explore hybrid analog-digital neuromorphic accelerators, while BrainChip expands the Akida ecosystem for low-power AI applications. Emerging startups like SynSense and Innatera are focusing on commercializing neuromorphic AI accelerators for edge computing, demonstrating a growing market appetite for these technologies.

Investment and Commercialization Trends

Venture capital funding for neuromorphic startups has increased, with investors recognizing the potential of brain-inspired computing in AI acceleration and IoT. Government and defense organizations, including DARPA, are investing in neuromorphic architectures for autonomous surveillance systems, next-generation military drones, and AI-powered secure communications. Academia-industry collaborations, particularly in the U.S., Europe, and China, are driving advancements in neuromorphic hardware scalability and software frameworks.

Challenges and Opportunities

Despite significant progress, neuromorphic computing faces challenges in software compatibility, standardization, and large-scale fabrication. Existing AI frameworks, such as TensorFlow and PyTorch, are not natively optimized for SNNs, necessitating new programming paradigms. Scalability remains a concern, as manufacturing neuromorphic chips with millions of interconnected artificial neurons requires advanced semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Future Prospects

The next decade will witness the convergence of neuromorphic computing with emerging technologies such as quantum computing, biohybrid systems, and 3D-integrated AI architectures. Quantum neuromorphic computing, which combines quantum-inspired neural networks with spike-based processing, holds promise for solving complex optimization problems with unprecedented efficiency. Furthermore, brain-on-chip innovations, integrating living neuronal cultures with synthetic neural networks, could pave the way for biologically realistic AI models.

As AI workloads become increasingly complex, neuromorphic chips will play a crucial role in advancing edge intelligence, real-time robotics, and human-like cognition in machines. By mimicking the energy efficiency and adaptability of the human brain, neuromorphic architectures are poised to redefine the future of computing, unlocking unparalleled capabilities across diverse technological domains.

The post Brain-Inspired Neuromorphic Chips Redefining AI Acceleration appeared first on ELE Times.

electronica China 2025 will take place from April 15 to 17, 2025 at the Shanghai New International Expo Centre (SNIEC), in halls W3-W5 and N1-N5. It is expected to attract a total of almost 1,800 high-quality exhibitors from domestic and international markets covering 100,000 square meters. Register now and check out the latest updates on the exhibition area!

Click to register now: https://ec.global-eservice.com/?lang=en&channel=enmd

Fairgrounds Map

Overview some important exhibition areas

Semiconductors & Sensors

In recent years, the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT) industry in China has positioned sensors as one of the core components of the country’s “Strong Foundation Project”. As a result, the market scale and application scenarios for sensors in China have continued to grow. electronica China 2025 will include exhibition areas for semiconductors and sensors, gathering numerous high-quality exhibitors to discuss industry development on-site.

Test and Measurement & Power Supplies

The power supply industry in China has seen rapid growth fueled by international industrial relocation, the ongoing development of China’s information technology, and the continuous advancements in the defense and military sectors. The 2025 exhibition will feature bring together companies to showcase their products and participate in technological discussions in the test and measurement, and power supply exhibition areas.

Connectors, Switches and Cable Harness

In recent years, the connector market has experienced overall growth, fueled by the rapid development of downstream industries such as consumer electronics, new energy vehicles, communications, and industrial control. electronica China 2025 will feature a connector exhibition area, inviting numerous leading exhibitors from the connector industry to showcase their new products.

PCB & EMS

With the maturation of the EMS industry model and ongoing technological advancements and capacity upgrades by companies, the global EMS market is experiencing greater diversity in its downstream customer sectors. At present, EMS is extensively applied across a range of sectors, including consumer electronics, automotive electronics, industrial control electronics, etc. electronica China 2025 will set up PCB and EMS exhibition areas.

Passive Components & Distributors

The development of technologies like 5G communication, artificial intelligence (AI), and the IoT is presenting substantial opportunities for the passive components industry. Additionally, passive components are widely used in such fields as telecommunications, power, automotive electronics, and healthcare, providing substantial growth opportunities for the industry. electronica China 2025 will set up passive components and distributors exhibition areas.

Click to register now: https://ec.global-eservice.com/?lang=en&channel=enmd

Learn more about electronica China: https://www.electronicachina.com.cn/en

The post electronica China 2025: High-quality Chinese and International Companies Gather at this Can’t-miss Electronics Event with 100,000 Square Meters appeared first on ELE Times.

I'm in the process of stripping this old scoring machine down to replace the insides with an Arduino. I think this machine dates back to the 1960s. Interestingly, it only has modes for Épée and foil (no saber), but yeah it is a fairly interesting piece of history. submitted by /u/Spyhawkguy [link] [comments]

submitted by /u/weirdal1968 [link] [comments]

Silicon Austria Labs (SAL) and Graz University of Technology (TU Graz) have opened their new joint Power Electronics Research Laboratory (PERL), led by Roberto Petrella, staff scientist in Power Electronics at SAL and professor at the University of Udine in Italy, and Michael Hartmann, professor and head of the Electric Drives and Power Electronic Systems Institute (EALS) at TU Graz. Researchers from both SAL and TU Graz will work together, including four dedicated PhD students...

Efficient Power Conversion Corp (EPC) of El Segundo, CA, USA — which makes enhancement-mode gallium nitride on silicon (eGaN) power field-effect transistors (FETs) and integrated circuits for power management applications — says that the United States Patent Office (USPTO) has strengthened its US Patent No.8,350,294 by adding two new patent claims that are fundamental to commercial enhancement-mode GaN devices. However, the USPTO has also cancelled two claims that were the basis for the decision by the US International Trade Commission (ITC) that China-based Innoscience (Suzhou) Technology Holding Co Ltd infringed the patent. EPC will appeal the cancellation of these two claims...

Introduction: The Shift from Electronics to Photonics

As traditional semiconductor-based computing approaches its physical and energy efficiency limits, photonic chips and optical computing have emerged as transformative solutions. By harnessing the speed and parallelism of light, these technologies offer significant advantages over conventional electronics in high-performance computing (HPC), artificial intelligence (AI), and data centers. Optical computing has the potential to revolutionize the way information is processed, enabling faster, more energy-efficient computation with lower latency.

The Fundamentals of Photonic Chips

Photonic chips leverage integrated photonics to manipulate light for computing, communication, and sensing applications. Unlike traditional chips that use electrons as the primary carriers of information, photonic chips use photons, which can travel at the speed of light with minimal energy loss. Key components of photonic chips include:

• Waveguides: Optical channels that guide light through a photonic circuit, analogous to electrical traces in traditional chips.
• Modulators: Convert electrical signals into optical signals by modulating light properties such as intensity or phase.
• Detectors: Convert optical signals back into electrical signals for further processing.
• Resonators and Interferometers: Facilitate advanced signal processing functions such as filtering, multiplexing, and logic operations.
• Photonic Crystals: Control the flow of light by creating periodic dielectric structures, enhancing optical confinement and manipulation.

Optical Computing: A Seismic Change in Processing

Optical computing aims to replace or supplement electronic computation with light-based logic operations. This transition offers several key advantages:

1. Unparalleled Speed: Photons travel at the speed of light, reducing signal delay and increasing processing throughput.
2. Low Energy Consumption: Unlike electrical circuits that suffer from resistive heating, photonic systems dissipate minimal heat, enhancing energy efficiency.
3. Massive Parallelism: Optical systems can process multiple data streams simultaneously, significantly improving computational throughput.
4. Reduced Signal Crosstalk: Optical signals do not experience the same interference as electrical signals, reducing errors and noise in computation.

Core Technologies Enabling Photonic Computing 1. Silicon Photonics: Bridging Electronics and Photonics

Silicon photonics integrates optical components onto a silicon platform, enabling compatibility with existing semiconductor fabrication techniques. Key innovations in silicon photonics include:

• On-chip Optical Interconnects: Replace traditional copper interconnects with optical waveguides to reduce power consumption and signal delay.
• Optical RAM and Memory: Photonic memory elements store and retrieve data using light, enhancing data transfer speeds.
• Electro-Optical Modulators: Convert electronic signals to optical signals efficiently, allowing seamless integration into existing computing architectures.

2. Optical Logic Gates and Boolean Computation

Optical computing relies on photonic logic gates to perform fundamental computations. These gates operate using:

• Nonlinear Optical Effects: Enable all-optical switching without electronic intermediaries.
• Mach-Zehnder Interferometers (MZI): Implement XOR, AND, and OR logic functions using light phase interference.
• Optical Bistability: Maintains state information in optical latches, paving the way for optical flip-flops and memory elements.

3. Neuromorphic Optical Computing for AI Acceleration

With the growing demand for AI processing, photonic neural networks offer an alternative to traditional GPUs and TPUs. Optical deep learning accelerators employ:

• Matrix Multiplication with Light: Perform multiply-accumulate operations at light speed using photonic interference.
• Optical Tensor Processing Units (TPUs): Enhance AI inference by leveraging photonic components for ultra-fast computation.
• Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM): Enables parallel processing by encoding multiple data streams onto different wavelengths of light.

4. Quantum Photonics: The Future of Secure Computation

Quantum computing benefits immensely from photonics due to the inherent properties of quantum light. Advancements in quantum photonic processors include:

• Single-Photon Sources and Detectors: Essential for quantum information processing and cryptographic applications.
• Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): Enables ultra-secure communication leveraging the principles of quantum entanglement.
• Optical Quantum Logic Gates: Facilitate complex quantum computations with minimal decoherence.

Industrial Applications and Use Cases 1. Data Centers and High-Performance Computing

Modern data centers face thermal constraints and power limitations due to electronic interconnects. Photonic interconnects dramatically reduce power consumption and increase bandwidth, making them an ideal solution for high-speed data transmission between servers and storage units.

2. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Acceleration

AI workloads rely on extensive matrix operations, which photonic computing executes at orders of magnitude faster speeds than traditional electronics. Companies like Lightmatter and Lightelligence are pioneering photonic AI accelerators to enhance deep learning performance while reducing energy costs.

3. Telecommunications and Optical Networks

Fiber-optic networks already leverage photonics for data transmission, but photonic computing extends these advantages to real-time processing. Photonic switches enable ultra-fast data routing, improving the efficiency of 5G and future 6G networks.

4. Healthcare and Biophotonics

Optical computing is revolutionizing biomedical imaging and diagnostics. Photonic chips enable high-resolution imaging techniques such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and bio-sensing applications, enhancing early disease detection.

5. Defense and Aerospace

The military and aerospace industries require ultra-fast, secure processing for signal intelligence, radar systems, and cryptographic applications. Optical computing’s speed and resistance to electromagnetic interference make it a critical enabler for next-generation defense systems.

Challenges and Future Roadmap 1. Fabrication Complexity and Scalability

While photonic chips leverage semiconductor manufacturing techniques, integrating large-scale optical circuits remains a challenge. Standardizing fabrication methods and developing CMOS-compatible photonic components are essential for commercial scalability.

2. Hybrid Photonic-Electronic Architectures

Despite the advantages of photonic computing, hybrid architectures that integrate both electronic and optical components are likely to dominate in the near term. Developing efficient electro-optic interfaces remains a key research focus.

3. Software and Algorithm Development

Current software is optimized for electronic computation, requiring a shift in programming paradigms for photonic systems. Developing photonic-aware compilers and simulation tools will accelerate adoption.

4. Energy Efficiency and Power Consumption

While photonic computing reduces heat dissipation, the challenge lies in optimizing light generation and detection components to minimize power consumption further.

Conclusion: The Dawn of the Photonic Computing Era

Photonic chips and optical computing represent a paradigm shift in computation, offering unparalleled speed, efficiency, and scalability. As silicon photonics, quantum optics, and neuromorphic photonic computing continue to advance, the technology is poised to revolutionize AI, data centers, telecommunications, and beyond. Overcoming fabrication, software, and integration challenges will be crucial for realizing the full potential of photonic computing, marking the beginning of a new era in information processing.

The post Breaking Boundaries with Photonic Chips and Optical Computing appeared first on ELE Times.

Due to their versatility, ease of design, and low cost, flyback converters have become one of the most widely used topologies in power electronics. Its structure derives from one of the three basic topologies—specifically, buck-boost topology. However, unlike buck-boost converters, flyback topologies allow the voltage output to be electrically isolated from the input power supply. This feature is vital for industrial and consumer applications.

Among the different control methods used to stabilize power converters, the most widely used control method is peak current mode, which continuously senses the primary current to provide important protection for the power supply.

Additionally, to obtain a higher design performance, it’s common to regulate the converter with the output that has the highest load using a technique called cross-regulation.

This article aims to show engineers how to correctly design the control loop that stabilizes the flyback converter in order to provide optimal functionality. This process includes minimizing the stationary error, increasing/decreasing the bandwidth as required, and increasing the phase/gain margin as much as possible.

Closed-loop flyback converter block diagram

Before making the necessary calculations for the controller to stabilize the peak current control mode flyback, it’s important to understand the components of the entire closed-loop system: the converter averaged model and the control loop (Figure 1).

              Figure 1 Here is how the components look in the entire closed-loop system. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

The design engineer’s main interest is to study the behavior of the converter under load changes. Considering a fixed input voltage (VIN), the open-loop transfer function can be modeled under small perturbations produced in the duty cycle to study the power supply’s dynamic response.

The summarized open-loop system can be modeled with Equation 1:              (1)

Where G is the current-sense gain transformed to voltage and GC(s) and GCI(s) are the transfer functions of the flyback converter in terms of output voltage and magnetizing current response (respectively) under small perturbations in the duty cycle. GαTS is the modeling of the ramp compensation to avoid the double-pole oscillation at half of the switching frequency.

Flyback converter control design

There are many decisions and tradeoffs involved in designing the flyback converter’s control loop. The following sections of the article will explain the design process step by step. Figure 2 shows the design flow.

Figure 2 The design flow highlights control loop creation step by step. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

Control loop design process and calculations

Step 1: Design inputs

Once the converter’s main parameters have been designed according to the relevant specifications, it’s time to define the parameters as inputs for the control loop design. These parameters include the input and output voltages (VIN and VOUT, respectively), operation mode, switching frequency (fSW), duty cycle, magnetizing inductance (LM), turns ratio (NP:NS), shunt resistor (RSHUNT), and output capacitance (COUT). Table 1 shows a summary of the design inputs for the circuit discussed in this article.

Table 1 Here is a summary of design inputs required for creating control loop. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

To design a flyback converter compensator, it’s necessary to first obtain all main components that make the converter. Here, HF500-40 flyback regulator is used to demonstrate design of a compensator using optocoupler feedback. This device is a fixed-frequency, current-mode regulator with built-in slope compensation. Because the converter works in continuous conduction mode (CCM) at low line input, a double-pole oscillation at half of the switching frequency is produced; built-in slope compensation dampens this oscillation, making its effect almost null.

Step 2: Calculate parameters of the open-loop transfer function

It’s vital to calculate the parameters of the open-loop transfer function and calculate the values for all of the compensator’s parameters that can optimize the converter at the dynamic behavior level.

The open-loop transfer function of the peak current control flyback converter (also including the compensation ramp factor) can be estimated with Equation 2:

      (2)

Where D’ is defined by the percentage of time that the secondary diode (or synchronous FET) is active during a switching cycle.

The basic canonical model can be defined with Equation 3:              (3)

Note that the equivalent series resistance (ESR) effect on the output capacitors has been included in the transfer function, as it’s the most significant parasitic effect.

By using Equation 2 and Equation 3, it’s possible to calculate the vital parameters.

The resonant frequency (fO) can be calculated with Equation 4:

              (4)

After inputting the relevant values, fO can be calculated with Equation 5:              (5)

The right-half-plane zero (fRHP) can be estimated with Equation 6:              (6)

The q-factor (Q) can be calculated with Equation 7:              (7)

After inputting the relevant values, Q can be estimated with Equation 8:              (8)

The DC gain (K) can be calculated with Equation 9:              (9)

After inputting the relevant values, K can be estimated with Equation 10:              (10)

The high-frequency zero (fHF) can be calculated with Equation 11:

              (11)

It’s important to note that with current mode control, it’s common to obtain values well below 0.5 for Q. With this in mind, the result of the second-degree polynomial in the denominator of the transfer function ends up giving two real and negative poles. This is different from voltage-control mode or when there is a very large compensation ramp, which results in two complex conjugate poles.

The two real and negative poles can be estimated with Equation 12:              (12)

The new open-loop transfer function can be calculated with Equation 13:              (13)

The cutoff frequency (fC) can be estimated with Equation 14:              (14)

The following sections will explain how the frequency compensator design achieves power supply stability and excellent performance.

Step 3: Frequency compensator design

Once the open-loop transfer function is modeled, it’s necessary to design the frequency compensator such that it achieves the best performance possible. Because the frequency response of the above transfer function has two separate poles—one at a low frequency and one at a high frequency—a simple Type II compensator can be designed. This compensator does not need an additional zero, which is not the case in voltage-control mode because there is a double pole that produces a resonance.

To minimize the steady-state error, it’s necessary to design an inverted-zero (or a pole at the origin) because it produces higher gains at low frequencies. To ensure that the system’s stability is not impacted, the frequency must be at least 10 times lower than the first pole, calculated with Equation 15:

           (15)

Due to the ESR parasitic effect at high frequencies, it’s necessary to design a high-frequency pole to compensate for and remove this effect. The pole can be estimated with Equation 16:

(16)

On the other hand, it’s common to modify the cutoff frequency to achieve a higher or lower bandwidth and produce faster or slower dynamic responses, respectively. Once the cutoff frequency is selected (in this case, fC is increased up to 6.5 kHz, or 10% of fSW), the compensator’s middle-frequency gain can be calculated with Equation 17:           (17)

Once the compensator has been designed within the frequency range, calculate the values of the passive components.

Step 4: Design the compensator’s passive components

The most common Type II compensator used for stabilization in current control mode flyback converters with cross-regulation is made up of an optocoupler feedback (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Type-II compensator is made up with optocoupler feedback. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

The compensator transfer function based on optocoupler feedback can be estimated with Equation 18:          (18)

The middle-frequency gain is formed in two stages: the optocoupler gain and the adjustable voltage reference compensator gain, calculated with Equation 19:

(19)

It’s important to calculate the maximum resistance to correctly bias the optocoupler. This resistance can be estimated with Equation 20:     (20)

The parameters necessary to calculate RD can be found in the optocoupler and the adjustable voltage reference datasheets. Table 2 shows the typical values for these parameters from the optocoupler.

Table 2 Here are the main optocoupler parameters. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

Table 3 shows the typical values for these parameters from the adjustable voltage reference.

Table 3 The above data shows adjustable voltage reference parameters. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

Once the above parameters have been obtained, RD can be calculated with Equation 21:              (21)

Once the value of R3 is obtained (in this case, R3 is internal to the HF500-40 controller, with a minimum value of 12 kΩ), as well as the values for R1, R2, and RD (where RD = 2 kΩ), RF can be estimated with Equation 22:   (22)

Where GCOMP is the compensator’s middle frequency gain, calculated with Equation (17). GCOMP is used to adjust the power supply’s bandwidth.

Because the inverted zero and high-frequency pole were already calculated, CF and CFB can be calculated with Equation 23 and Equation 24, respectively.         (23)           (24)

Once the open-loop system and compensator have been designed, the loop gain transfer function can be estimated with Equation 25:           (25)

Equation 25 is based on Equation 13 and Equation 18.

It’s important to calculate the phase and gain margins to ensure the stability of power supply.

The phase margin can be calculated with Equation 26:          (26)

After inputting the relevant values, the phase margin can be calculated with Equation 27:          (27)

If the phase margin exceeds 50°, it’s an important parameter necessary to comply with certain standards.

At the same time, the gain margin can be approximated with Equation 28:            (28)

Equation 29 is derived from Equation 25 at the specified frequency:     (29)

In this scenario, the gain margin is below -10dB, which is another important parameter to consider, particularly regarding compliance with regulation specifications. If the result is close to 0dB, some iteration is necessary to decrease the value; otherwise, the performance is suboptimal. This iteration must start by decreasing the value of the cutoff frequency.

This complete transfer function provides stability to the power supply and the best performance made possible by:

• Minimizing steady-state error
• Minimizing ESR parasitic effect
• Increasing bandwidth of power supply up to 6.5 kHz

Final design

After calculating all the passive component values for the feedback loop compensator and determining the converter’s main parameters, the entire flyback can be designed using the flyback regulator. Figure 4 shows the circuit’s final design using all calculated parameters.

Figure 4 Here is how the final design circuit schematic looks like. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

Figure 5 shows the bode plot of the complete loop gain frequency response.

Figure 5 Bode plot is shown for the complete loop gain frequency response. Source: Monolithic Power Systems

Obtaining the flyback averaged model via small-signal analysis is a complex process to most accurate approximation of the converter’s transfer functions. In addition, the cross-regulation technique involves secondary-side regulation through optocoupler feedback and an adjustable voltage reference, which complicates calculations.

However, by following the four steps explained in this article, a good approximation can be obtained to improve the power supply’s performance, as the output with the heaviest load is directly regulated. This means that the output can react quickly to load changes.

Joan Mampel is application engineer at Monolithic Power Systems (MPS).

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